^Olir\  t>iif-\    ii-vNO' 


>? 


^(JOJiiv>jo>'      '^.i/ojnvjjo'^ 


<rjl3DNVS0\^ 


^.OfCAllF0% 


^OFCAllFOff^ 
> 


^^OAavaaii-^^^ 


'^Mavaaii^'i^ 


,^\^[■UNlVERi•//, 


^VlOSANCElfj-^ 


<r?]]ONVsoi^      '^/ia3AlN(l■3^\v 


^OfCAllFOi?^        ^OFCAlll 


^ 


J^^Wf  UNIVEBJ/^ 


o 


^lOSANC[lfj> 


,  -< 

%a3AINn-3Wv^ 


««^IIIBRARYQ<^ 


^;^l•llBRARYQ^ 


'^.^OJIWDJO^ 


^.l/OJIWDJO^ 


AWEUNIVERS/a 


<riiHNVsoi^ 


o 


%ajAiNf 


.^WEU^JIVER% 


'%13DN\'S01^ 


^•lOSANCElfX^ 


"^/iajAiNii  JW"^ 


.^OFCA1IFO% 


-^OFCAllFOff^ 


'&Aavaani^'^       >&Aavaaiii^ 


.^MEUNIVERJ//, 


C5 


vlOSANC 


"^AaJAINf 


^>^HIBRARYQ/- 


^^HIBRARYQr^ 


^.JOJIlVDJO'f^ 


^<!/OJIlVJJO'' 


,^\^tUNIVERS/A 


v^lOSANCflfj> 


^TJlJONVSOl^         %a]AIN,13\\V 


^^^UIBRARYQ/^        ^^IIIBRA: 


^OfCAllF0% 


x,OFCA(IFO% 


^^OAavaaii^^ 


.^WEUNIVERS/A 


.vlOSANCElfj)> 


>&AavaaiH^^         ^riuDNvsoi^      %a3AiN(i-3i\v' 


,-;;OFCAllF0%.        ,-;;OFCAlll 


^''OAavaaii-^^^     '^^OAavaa 


.  \WE  UNIVERJ/A 


^^lOSA-JCElfj-^ 


^      5 


■^Aa3AiNn]HV 


^tllBRARYQ^ 


^^^IIIBRARYQ^ 


^iOJUVJ-JO"^ 


^^MEUNIVERJ/^ 


%0J11V3J0'?'         <ril30NVSOl^      '''^mwHi 


,\WEUNIVER% 


.>:lOSANCElfj> 


"^/iajAiNniwv* 


^OFCAllFOfti^ 


,-;,OFCAllF0P4^  \\\E  UNIVERJ/a 


^OAavaaiH^"^       >&Aavaan-# 


^lOSANC 

Or 

O 


■'^/iaiAiNi 


^AlllBRARYQ^ 


^IUBRARYOa 


A\^EIINIVERVa 


^vvlOSANC[lfj> 

o 


^^tllBRARYQ/:         ^NStLIBRA 


Vuf\  \\-\\i-\   irt-V 


JDN^SOV^^ 


%a3AiNn]Wv 


^<!/0JllV3J0'^       "^(i/OJIlVJ  JO"^ 


o 

■I' 


Cf 


dllVDJO 
CA1IF0«V 


avaaiT^'^'^     '^'^om\ 


\mmin 


vlOS- 


o 


^OFCAUFOff^      ^OFCAIIFOR^ 


^^MEUNIVER%       ^lOSANCElfj> 


SbbL  I    A\/W 
-uin-tncuiill 


)i=^      %a3,\iNn]Wv^ 


) 


jo-^ 


5a       o 


RS//, 


^<yojnv3jo^ 


)ff^      ^OFCAllfOft<^ 


■i^(?Abvaaii-^'^ 


c^^lOSAf-'CFlfx^ 
o 


'/SaiAINilJrtV 


^aaMNiviv^^"^ 


LIBRARYftr^ 


■MOjaq  psdoios  ajep  jsej  aqj  no  afia  ST  looq  stqx 
sapSoy  wy\ 

AUVHan  viNHOiiTvo  ao  AxiyaaAiNn 


1% 


JJIIVDJO"^        '^iOdllVJJO'*^         ^J^ldDNVSOl^"^        "^/iadAINniVi^^ 


^^lllBRARYftr^ 


^iOJlTYJ-JO"^ 


■CAllFOft^ 

.avaaii-^^"^ 


^OFCAIIFOff^ 


^OAavaaniN"^ 


,^WEl)NIVERy/A: 


o 


^lOSA'JCElfjv. 


^AaJAlNdJWV^ 


^OFCAilFOff^ 


jj^OFCAllFOR^ 


>&Aavaani^^ 


^<?Aavaaiii'^^ 


UNIVERJ/^ 


,.r,,,-# 


^vlOSMElfj> 


^tllBRARYO/v        ^,^illBRARY«9/^ 


^('mjnv/i.jn^-^        ■?il';vnjiiwi.jr\'^ 


,^V\EUNIVER% 


O 


^•lOSA>fCEtfX^ 


V^' 


rKi",ki:ss  hf   ihk  cknti  kv 


r 


Story  of  One  Hundred  Years 

A  MATCHLESS  RECORD  OF  THE  GREATEST 
CENTURY  OF  HISTORIC  TIME. 

A  Comprehensive  Review  of  the  Political  and  Military  Events, 

the  Social,  Intellectual  and  Material   Progress,  and 

the  General  State  of  Mankind  in  All  Lands. 

Embodying:  Detailed  and  Accurate  Accounts  of  all  Things  of  Importance 
and  Interest,  from  J80I  to  J900,  Inclusive. 


Profusely  Illustrated  from  Historic   Paintings   and    Engravings   and   from 
Special  Drawings  made  expressly  lor  this  work. 


By  DANIEL  B.  SHEPP, 

Attthor  of  "Sbepp's  Photographs  of  the  ^Torld,"  "Shcpp's  World's  Fair  PhotOEraphed,** 
"Sh«pp'«  Giant  Library,"  "Shcpp's  New  York  City  Illustrated,"  ete^  cte. 


Published  by 

Globe  Bible   Publishing  Company, 

723  Chestnut  Street,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  igoo, 

By  D.  B.  SHEPP. 

In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington,  D.  C. 


Ail  rights  reserved. 


STACK 
ANNEX 


PREFACE. 

JROM    1 80 1  to  1900      It  is  a  small  part  of  the  history  of  the 
world.     It  is  the  merest  fraction,  insignificant  in  extent,  of 
the  whole  story  of  Time.     Yet  it  surpasses  in  human  inter- 
est all  that  had  gone  before.     It  has  been  well  said  that  the 
Nineteenth  Century  is  properly  to  be  compared  not  with 
any  other  century  but  with  all  other  centuries  put  together.     And  this 
estimate  does  not  seem  extravagant  when  we  consider  the  marvelous 
progress  which  has  been  made  by  man  in  these  one  hundred  years. 

In  all  the  thrilling  interest  of  war  and  conquest,  of  heroic  achieve- 
ment, of  daring  adventure,  the  Nineteenth  Century  is  more  than  the  peer 
of  any  other.  In  scientific  progress  it  easily  outstrips  all  its  eighteen 
predecessors,  and  the  forty  more  that  preceded  them.  In  literature, 
music,  art,  it  proves  that  the  former  times  were  not  better  than  the  later. 
And  in  social  advancement,  free  institutions,  elevation  of  the  masses  of 
the  people,  and  general  betterment  of  the  condition  of  humanity,  it  so 
far  outranks  all  other  centuries  as  to  seem  almost  an  era  in  a  new  world. 
To  tell  the  stor}'  of  such  an  epoch  is  a  task  that  may  well  fascinate 
the  fancy  and  engage  the  highest  endeavors  of  the  historian.  In  many 
respects  the  story  can  never  be  fully  told,  for  it  is  written  only  upon  the 
hearts  and  souls  of  the  human  race.  To  tell  all  that  could  be  told  of  the 
Hundred  Years,  in  all  its  fullness,  would  require  a  whole  library,  and 
would  need  a  lifetime  to  read.  The  present  undertaking  aims  at  no  such 
thing  as  that.  It  aims  at  the  production  of  a  practical  book,  which  in  cost 
is  within  the  reach  of  all,  and  in  compass  is  within  the  power  of  all  to 
read,  and  yet  which  in  scope  and  detail  covers  the  entire  range  of  the 
century  and  includes  every  fact  of  real  and  lasting  import. 

In  performing  this  task  the  historian  must  tell  the  story  of  his  own 
land,  in  its  progress  from  the  estate  of  a  puny  handful  of  half-settled 
States  to  that  of  one  of  the  greatest  powers  on  the  face  of  the  globe.  In 
so  doing  he  must  tell  of  great  foreign  and  domestic  wars,  of  territorial 
expansion,  and  of  such  inventive  and  industrial  genius  as  the  world  has 
not  elsewhere  seen.  He  must  tell  of  the  mighty  wars  of  the  Old  World, 
of  the  gradual  emancipation  ol  nation  after  nation  from  absolutism  to 

13 


14  PREFACE. 

constitutional  government.  He  must  tell  of  the  opening  of  the  Dark 
Continent,  and  of  the  lands  of  Asia,  and  the  settlement  of  the  islands  of 
the  sea,  and  the  extension  into  them  of  the  arts  of  civilization.  The  rise 
and  fall  of  empire,  the  transforming  of  the  map  of  the  world,  are  mere 
incidents  in  the  progress  of  the  mighty  drama. 

For  the  proper  fulfilment  of  such  a  task  it  is  necessary  to  draw  upon 
all  sources  of  information,  to  ransack  libraries,  documents,  statistics,  and 
a  vast  wealth  of  data  wholly  inaccessible  to  the  average  man  ;  and  to 
glean  therefrom  the  choicest  grain  of  information  and  place  it  in  practi- 
cal and  attractive  form  before  the  reader.  The  resources  of  pictorial 
art  are  likewise  to  be  utilized,  in  the  securing  of  present  scenes  of  inter- 
est and  the  reproduction  of  old  ones  from  the  great  galleries  and  treasure 
houses  of  art.  The  labor  involved  in  such  an  undertaking  is  enormous. 
But  the  satisfaction  in  achieving  it  is  likewise  beyond  all  estimation. 

The  work  is  done,  ended  with  the  closing  days  of  the  century  which 
it  records.  It  is  offered  to  the  reader  with  an  earnest  hope  that  it  will  be 
found  not  unworthy  of  its  exalted  theme,  and  that  it  will  assist  the  multi- 
tudes who  may  peruse  it  to  form  a  more  adequate  estimate  of  the  "  clos- 
ing cycle  "  than  would  have  been  possible  without  it. 


CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  I. 

Dawn  of  the  New  Century — Washington   the   National   Capital  —  War   with 
Tripoli — Ohio  Admitted  to  the  Union — Duel  Between  Hamilton  and  Burr 
— The  Louisiana  Purchase  —  Re-election  of  Mr.  Jefferson  —  Trouble  with  ; 
England  and  France — The  Embargo  —  Impressment  of  Seamen  —  Chesa- 
peake and  Leopard — The  First  Steamboat — Jefiferson's  Retirement 33 

CHAPTER  H. 

The  Napoleonic  Wars — Copenhagen — Alexandria — Reconstruction  of  France — 
War  Renewed — England  Threatened  with  Invasion — Emmett's  Rebellion — 
Napoleon  Made  Emperor — Ulm,  Trafalgar  and  Austerlitz  —  Changing  the 
Map  of  Europe — ^Jena  and  Auerstadt  - — Friedland  • — The  Peninsular  War  — 
French  Troops  in  Madrid — Victories  of  Napoleon 40 

CHAPTER  HL 

General  Progress  of  the  World — Independence  of  Hayti — Seizure  of  Toussaint 
— Bloody  Independence — King  Henry  —  Peruvian  Revolution  —  Buenos 
Ayres — Disaster  to  the  British — Storming  of  Buenos  Ayres  —  Moving  for 
Independence — Civil  Dissensions — -Success  of  the  Revolution  —  Other 
Countries  Revolt  —  Colombian  Independence  —  Science  and  Literature — 
American  Literature  52 

CHAPTER  IV. 
Madison  Becomes  President  of  the  United  States — Trouble  with  the  Indians — 
The  War  of  1812 — American  Disasters  —  Victories  at  Sea  —  Invasion  of 
Canada — Battle  of  Lake  Erie — British  Success  at  Sea  —  Chippewa  and 
Lundy's  Lane  —  Lake  Champlain — Burning  of  Washington  —  Talking  of 
Peace — Battle  of  New  Orleans — Hartford  Convention — The  Creek  War — 
Close  of  Mr.  Madison's  Administration 68 

CHAPTER  V. 
Austria  Against  Napoleon — Napoleon's  Divorce  and  Re-marriage — Wellington 
at  Torres  Vedras — Turn  of  the  Tide  in  Spain  —  Quarrel  with  Russia — 
Marching  to  Moscow — Borodino — Destruction  of  Moscow — Horrors  of  the 
Retreat — Destruction  of  the  Grand  Anny — Lutzen  and  Leipsic — Invasion 
of  France — Napoleon's  Return  from  Elba — Waterloo — Restoration  of  the 

Bourbons  —  The   Second  Peace   of  Paris 79 

»5 


1-6  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  VI. 

The  War  for  Independence  in  South  America — Simon  Bolivar — Liberator  and 
Dictator — La  Puerta  and  San  Marco —  Republic  of  Bolivia —  Revolution  of 
Mexico  —  Hidalgo  —  Death  of  Hidalgo  —  Calleja — Russia  and  Turkey — 
Stories  of  the  Years — Scientific  Progress   92 

CHAPTER  Vn. 

James  Monroe  Becomes  President  of  the  United  States — Acquisition  of  Florida 
— The  Monroe  Doctrine — Three  New  States — The  Missouri  Compromise 
— Treaties  and  Controversies — Lafayette  —  The  Pension  System  —  Revision 
of  the  Tariff — Re-election  of  Mr.  Monroe loi 

CHAPTER  VHL 

Treaty  of  Paris — Reaction  in  Europe — The  Manchester  Meeting — The  Barbary 
Pirates — Disquiet  in  France — Rebellion  in  Spain — Revolution  in  Portugal 
— Naples  and  Sicily — Revolution  in  Piedmont — Congress  at  Carlsbad — The 
Greek  Revolution — Independence  Proclaimed  —  Turkish  Atrocities  —  The 
Greek  Constitution — The  Destruction  of  Scio — Marco  Bozzaris — Byron  at 
Missolonghi — The  Egyptian  Fleet  at  Navarino lOg 

CHAPTER  IX. 

Great  Britain  and  the  Indian  Empire — The  Mahratta  War — Obrenovitch,  Prince 
of  Servia — Revolutions  in  America — The  Triumph  of  Bolivar — The  Repub- 
lic of  Colombia — Three  Republics  Organized  — Death  of  Bolivar  — Iturbide 
in  Mexico — Treaty  of  Cordova — Iturbide  Emperor — Fall  of  Iturbide — 
Liberia — "Byron  is  Dead" — Literature  and  Science — Trumbull's  Paintings 
— Steam  Navigation — Death  of  Decatur  125 

CHAPTER  X. 

lohn  Quincy  Adams  Becomes  President  of  the  United  States  —  Trouble  with 
Creek  Indians — The  Panama  Congress — A  Notable  Anniversary — Political 
Movements — Election  of  General  Jackson    140 

CHAPTER  XL 

Fall  of  Louis  XVIII — The  War  in  Greece — Accession  of  Czar  Nicholas  I — 
Change  of  Russian  Policy — Destruction  of  the  Janissaries  —  Declaring  for 
Greek  Independence — Battle  of  Navarino — Russia  Makes  War  on  Turkey — 
Doings  in  \'arious  Lands I44 

CHAPTER  XII. 
Opening  of  the  Erie  Canal — Gas  Lighting —  Railroads —  Arctic   Exploration — 

Elarlv  Strikes — Miscellaneous  Events IS5 


CONTENTS.  1 7 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

Andrew  Jackson  Becomes  President  of  the  United  States — Changes  in  Office — 
Nullification — South  Carolina  Yields  —  Georgia  and  the  Cherokees  —  Na- 
tional Bank — Removal  of  the  Deposits— Black  Hawk  War — Seminole  War 
— ^Jackson  Re-elected — Foreign  Affairs i6o 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

Catholic  Emancipation  in  England  — ■  Wellington  Prime  Minister — Catholic 
Emancipation  Effected  —  End  of  the  Greek  Revolution  —  Russo-Turkish 
War — Troubles  in  France — Conquest  of  Algeria  —  Reaction  in  France — 
The  Revolution  Begins — Flight  of  the  King —  Belgian  Revolution —  Unrest 
in  Poland — Outbreak  at  Warsaw — Russians  Routed — The  Fall  of  Poland — 
Reform  Law  in  England — Triumph  of  Reform — Doings  in  \'arious  Lands 
— The  Carlist  War 171 

CHAPTER  XV. 

Spanish  Attack  upon  Mexico  —  Usurpation  of  Bustamente  —  Defence  of  the 
Federal  Constitution — Proceedings  of  Santa  Anna — Texas  Declared  Inde- 
pendent— New  Grenada,  \'enezuela  and  Ecuador — Personal  Incidents — First 
Passenger  Railway — Exploring  the  Niger — Copyright  Reform — Obituary 
■ — Slave  Insurrection — Events  Abroad — Girard  College  Founded — Chastis- 
ing Savage  Sumatrians — The  Cholera  Epidemic — The  Death  Roll — Treaty 
with  Russia — Rioting  in  the  United  .States — Shooting  Stars — Necrolog}- — 
Great  Fire  in  New  York — Colt's  Revolver   igp 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

Martin  Van  Buren  Becomes  President  of  the  L^nited  States — The  Great  Panic — 
Continuance  of  the  War  in  Florida — Internal  Improvements — Difficulties 
in  the  State  of  Maine — Incidents  of  the  Administration — Changes  of  Opin- 
ion Among  the  People — An  Exciting  Campaign 203 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

Accession  of  Queen  Victoria — Insurrection  in  Canada — Suppression  of  the  In- 
surgents— Indemnity  in  Canada — -Outbreak  in  Acadie — Persian  Invasion  of 
Afghanistan — The  Chartist  Agitation — Attempt  to  Burn  Sheffield — Marriage 
of  Queen  \'ictoria — The  Opium  War — Hostilities  at  Macao — Destruction 
of  Chinese  Fleet — .\ttempt  to  Assassinate  Queen  X'ictoria — Louis  Napoleon 
at  Boulogne — Remains  of  Bonaparte  Brought  Home — The  British  Princess- 
Royal — Turkish  Affairs- — Fall  of  Acre — Terms  of  Peace 208 


1 8  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 
Regular  Steam  Navigation  of  Atlantic  Begun — The  "Great  Western" — Regular 
Trips  Begun — The  "Great  Britain"- -A  Fine  Ship's  Bad  Luck — Origin  of  the 
Cunard  Line— Antarctic  Explorations  —  Wilkes's  Expedition  —  "Erebus" 
and  "Terror" — New  Year's  at  Mount  Sabine  —  Antarctic  Volcanoes  —  The 
Icy  Barrier — The  Attempt  Abandoned — Origin  of  Photography — Temper- 
ance Societies — Literary  Progress 228 


CHAPTER  XIX. 
William  Henry  Harrison  Becomes  President  of  the  United  States — Death  of 
Harrison — John  Tyler  Becomes  President — Ashburton  Treaty — Dorr's  Re- 
bellion— Saving  Oregon — Anti-Slavery  Agitation — General  Jackson's  Fine 
— Annexation  of  Texas — Treaty  with  China — The  Texas  Question — Inci- 
dents of  the  Administration — End  of  Tyler's  Term   242 

CHAPTER  XX. 
Mehemet  Ali  Ruler  of  Egypt — Disasters  in  Afghanistan — Hastening  to  the  Res- 
cue— Fall  of  Ghuznee — Capture  of  Cabul — Release  of  Captives — Conquest 
of  Scinde — The  Bogue  Forts — Fall  of  Canton — Capture  of  Amoy — Capture 
of  Shanghai — Treaty  Signed  at  Nankin  — Annexation  of  Natal  — O'Con- 
nell's  Agitation — British  Interests — Two  Revolutions 248 


CHAPTER  XXI. 
Fremont  Explores  the  Rocky  Mountains —  Newspapers  — Telegraphy  — Wheat- 
stone's  System — Greenough's  Washington — Labor  Troubles — Francia,  the 
Dictator —  .Autocracy  Extraordinary 263 

CHAPTER  XXII. 
James  K.  Polk  Becomes  President  of  the  United  States  —  The  Mexican  War — 
General  Taylor  at  the  Front  —  Palo  Alto  —  Monterey  —  President  Santa 
Anna — Taylor  Resumes  Operations — Buena  Vista — Scott  at  Vera  Cruz- — 
Cerro  Gordo  —  Two  Bloody  Battles — Suing  for  Peace — Capture  of  the  City 
of  Mexico — Conquest  of  New  Mexico — Fremont's  Conquest  of  California — 
Treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo — The  Wilmot  Proviso  —  Discovery  of  Gold 
— Close  of  the  Administration — The  Free  Soil  Party 275 

CHAPTER  XXIII. 
First  Sikh  War — Great  Battle  of  Ferozeshah — The  Second  Sikh  War — The  Irish 
Famine — Abolition  of  the  Corn  Laws — Break-up  of  the  Tory  Party — Emi- 


CONTENTS.  19 

gration  from  Ireland — Smith  O'Brien's  Insurrection- — End  of  Chartism  — 
The  Spanish  Marriages — Discontent  in  France — Beginning  the  Revolution 
— The  King's  Surrender — The  Republic  Proclaimed  —  Rise  of  the  Mob  — 
Organizing  the  Republic — Louis  Xapoleon  President  of  France — Afifairs  in 
Germany  —  The  Revolutionary  Era  —  Concessions  in  Prussia  —  The  Op- 
pression of  Italy — Awakening  of  the  Italians  —  Throwing  of?  the  Austrian 
Yoke — The  Suppression  of  Lombardy — The  Pope  Flees  from  Rome — Revo-  1 
lution  in  Austria-Hungar>- — War  Threatened  in  Menna — War  with  Hun- 
gary— "King  Bomba" — Reaction  in  Prussia 286 

CHAPTER  XXIV. 

Sir  John  Franklin  Sails  to  Seek  the  Northwest  Passage — Humboldt's  "Kosmos" 
— Necrology — The  Planet  Neptune  —  The  Sewing  Machine  — Anaesthetics 
— Personal 316 

CHAPTER  XXV. 

Zachary  Taylor  Becomes  President  of  the  United  States — The  Free  Soil  Party — 
The  Slavery  Question — Clay's  Compromise — A  Famous  Oration — Foote's 
Resolution — Lopez  in  Cuba — Clayton-Bulwer  Treaty  —  Death  of  Taylor — 
Accession  of  Fillmore — The  Lopez  Expedition — Incidents  of  the  Adminis- 
tration— Election  of  Pierce  320 

CHAPTER  XXVI 

The  Frankfort  Parliament — Organizing  a  German  League — An  Error  of  Tactics 
— A  Christmas  Gift  to  Germany — Framing  a  Constitution — A  King  De- 
clines to  be  Emperor — A  Conflict  with  the  Kings — Revolutionary  Move- 
ments— The  First  "Dreibund" — Final  Failure  of  the  Congress — Schleswig- 
Holstein — Kossuth's  Campaign — Russian  Intervention  —  Another  Italian 
War — Italian  Republic  Crushed — The  Taiping  Rebellion — Indian  Affairs — 
Death  of  Lopez  in  Cuba — Imperial  Ambitions  — The  Coup  d'Etat  — Resto- 
ration of  the  Empire  —  Rebuilding  Paris 331; 

CHAPTER  XXVII. 

Earth's  Explorations  in  Africa — Necrology  —  London  World's  Fair  —  Gold  in 
Australia — Helmholtz  and  the  Ophthalmoscope — Caloric  Engines — Per- 
sonal— Kossuth  and  His  \^isit — Reception  in  New  York — Death  of  Mr.  Clay 
- — His  Career  at  Washington — Death  of  Mr.  Webster  —  His  Early  Career 
— In  Public  Life — The  Great  Expounder  of  the  Constitution — Close  of  His 
Career — Submarine  Boats — Submarine  Telegraphy  —  The  Brothers  Brett — 
The  First  Cable — Triumph  at  Last — Extension  of  the  System 350 


20  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XXVIII. 
I''ranklin  Pierce  Becomes  President  of  the  United  States — Walker  in  Nicaragua 
— Anti-Slavery  Power  in  Congress — Ostend  Manifesto — Reciprocity  with 
Canada — Squatter  Sovereignty — Protests  Against  Extension  of  Slavery  — 
The  War  in  Kansas  —  Organizing  the  Kansas  Government  —  Anti-Slavery 
Agitation  — "Under-Ground  Railroad"  —  The  Sumner-Brooks  Episode  — 
Know-Nothing  Party — The  Republican  Party  —  The  Koszta  Incident — ■ 
Perry  in  Japan 368 

CHAPTER  XXIX. 
-Marriage  of  Napoleon  III. — The  Crimean  War — Invasion  of  the  Crimea — The 
Charge  of  the  Light  Brigade — Inkerman — Sufferings  of  the  Troops — Minis- 
terial Changes  in  England — Redan  and  Malakofif — Terms  of  Peace — Turk- 
ish Reforms — Revolution  in  Spain — British  War  with  China — Opening  of 
Japan — Minor  Incidents 379 

CHAPTER  XXX. 
Doctor  Kane's  Search  for  Franklin — The  North-west  Passage — New  York  Crys- 
tal Palace — Livingstone's  Explorations — His  First  Work  in  Africa — Impor- 
tant Discoveries — Crossing  the  Continent  —  Victoria  Falls  —  Niagara  Sus- 
pension Bridge — Various  Incidents 393 

CHAPTER  XXXI. 
James  Buchanan  Becomes  President  of  the  United  States — Troubles  in  Kansas 
— John  Brown  at  Harper's  Ferry — The  Dred-Scott  Decision — Lincoln  and 
Douglas — Lincoln  Elected  President — Secession — Attitude  of  the  Washing- 
ton Government  —  Incidents  of  the    Administration   400 

CHAPTER  XXXII. 
End  of  British  War  with  Persia — Origin  of  the  Mutiny — The  Greased  Catridges 
— Outbreak  at  Meerut  — Cawnpore  and  Lucknow  —  Suppression  of  the 
Mutiny — End  of  the  East  India  Company — British  and  French  in  China — 
.Moving  on  Peking — Fall  of  Peking  —  The  Rise  of  Sardinia  —  Attempt  to 
Kill  Napoleon  II — War  with  Austria  —  Magenta  and  Solferino  —  Peace  of 
Villafranca — L'nion  of  Northern  Italy  —  Savoy  and  Nice  —  Garibaldi  Liber- 
ates Naples  and  Sicily — Defeat  of  the  Papal  Army — Victor  Emanuel  King 
of  Italy — Interests  of  Various  Lands 408 

CHAPTER  XXXIII. 
First  Atlantic  Cable  used  for  a  few  Messages — African    Exploration — Living- 
stone Discovers  Lake  Nyassa — "Striking  Oil" — Fate  of  Sir  John  Franklin — 
Literary  Landmarks^The  Death  Roll    135 


CONTENTS.  2 1 

CHAPTER  XXXIV. 
Abraham  Lincoln  Becomes  President  of  tlie  United  States — Plans  of  Secession- 
ists— Beginning  of  the  War — The  Great  Uprising — The  First  Fighting — 
Bull  Run — The  "Trent"  Affair — Fort  Donelson — Pittsburg  Landing — -"^iler- 
rimac"and  "Monitor" — Capture  of  New  Orleans — McClellan's  Campaigns — 
The  Second  Bull  Run — Antietani — Emancipation — Operations  in  the  West 
—  Vicksburg  — Chancellorsville  — Gettysburg — Riots  in  Xew  York — Chick- 
amauga — Grant  in  Virginia — \\'inchester  —  Sherman's  March  —  Thomas  in 
Tennessee — Xaval  Operations — End  of  the  War — Assassination  of  Lincoln 
— President  Johnson — Impeachment 440 

CHAPTER  XXXV. 
Death  of  Prince  Albert — Second  Schelswig-Holstein  War — The  Prusso-Austrian 
Invasion- — Prussia  Takes  the  Lead — The  Prusso-Austrian  War — End  of  the 
War  and  Terms  of  Peace — Austro-Hungarian  Reorganization  —  The  Rise 
of  Italy — Garibaldi — Ma.ximilian's  Short-lived  Empire — Revolution  in  Spain 
— The  Poles  Finally  Crushed — The  Greek  Revolution — Turkey  — The  Taip- 
ings — Cochin  China   467 

CHAPTER  XXXVI. 
Discovery  of  the  \'ictoria  Nile  by  Speke  and  Grant  —  Livingstone's  Return  — 

Another  Expedition — Interests  of  Various  Lands — Necrology 481 

CHAPTER  XXXVII. 
Ulysses  S.  Grant  Becomes  President  of  the  United  States  —  Santo  Domingo — 
Treaty  of  Washington — San  Juan  Boundary — Grant's   Re-election  — Indian 
Troubles — The  Centennial  State — Financial  Troubles — The  Disputed  Elec- 
tion    485 

CHAPTER  XXXVIII. 
Irish  Church  Disestablished — Irish  Land  Act — Revolution  in  Spain — French 
Quarrel  with  Prussia — Beginning  of  the  War — German  Conquest  of  France 
— The  French  Republic — Siege  of  Paris — Surrender — Terms  of  Peace — The 
Commune — Strength  of  the  Republic  — The  German  Empire  — Conference 
on  the  Black  Sea — British  Affairs — -Gladstone  and  Disraeli — Ashantee  War 
— Empress  of  India — The  Suez  Canal  Shares — Occupation  of  Rome — King 
Amadeus — Germany  and  the  \'atican — Emancipation  in  Brazil 41)3 

CHAPTER  XXXIX. 
Completion  of  Pacific  Railroad  and  Suez  Canal — Obituary — Baker  on  the  Xile 
— Chicago  Fire — Mont  Cenis  Tunnel — Hoosac  Tunnel — Polar  Exploration 
— Stanley's  Search  for  Livingstone  — End  of  Livingstone's  Career — Death 


22  CONTENTS. 

of  Livingstone — Two  Great  Fires — The  Centennial  of  Independence— \''ari- 
ous  Doings  in  Various  Lands ; 5  lo 

CHAPTER  XL. 

Rutherford  B.  Hayes  Becomes  President  of  the  United  States — Civil  Service  Re- 
form— Free  Coinage  of  Silver — Specie  Payments — Incidents  of  the  Admin- 
istration— Labor  Troubles — Knights  of  Labor — Growth  of  the  Order — First 
General  Assembly — Presidential  Election   520 

CHAPTER  XLI. 

War  Between  Russia  and  Turkey — Plevna — Shipka  Pass — Treaty  of  Stefano — 
Treaty  of  Berlin — Results  of  the  War — Second  Afghan  War — Conquest  of 
Burmah — Australia — Development  of  the  Colonies — New  Zealand — Can- 
ada^Irish  Agitation — Crime  in  Ireland — "Boycotting"  —  Montenegro  — 
Nihilism — Zulu  and  Transvaal  Wars — Pope  and  King 526 

CHAPTER  XLH. 

Stanley's  Great  Explorations  in  Africa — Vindication  of  Stanley  —  Stanley's 
Third  Expedition — Paris  Exposition — Arctic  Exploration — Cologne  Cathe- 
dral— Modern   Inventions — Necrology 543 

CHAPTER  XLIIL 

James  A.  Garfield  Becomes  President  of  the  United  States — President  Arthur — 
The  Isthmian  Canal — Star  Route  Trials  —  Anti-Polygamy  Law  —  Chinese 
Exclusion — Irish-American  Convention  —  Exhibitions  and  Conventions  — 
Foreign  Envoys — The  New  Navy — Financial  Panic — Political  Doings ....    549 

CHAPTER  XLIV. 

Memorable  Events  Throughout  the  World — The  Irish  Problem — Egyptian  Rev- 
olution— Bombardment  of  Alexandria —  Fall  of  Arabi  — The  Soudan — Gor- 
don to  the  Rescue — In  Khartoum — Dervishes  Closing  In — Siege  of  I-Char- 
toum — The  Relief  Expedition — Hero  and  Martyr 556 

CHAPTER  XLV. 

Panama  Canal — \^arious  Routes  Surveyed^DeLesseps'  Scheme  — Reorganiza- 
tion— St.  Gothard  Tunnel — The  East  River  Bridge — Great  Earthquakes — 
Louis  Pasteur — Necrology 565 

CHAPTER  XLVI. 

Grover  Cleveland  Becomes  President  of  the  United  States — The  Navy — Rock 
Springs  Massacre — The  Presidential  Succession  —  The  Chicago  Anarchists 
— Interstate  Commerce — Presidential  Campaign 573 


CONTENTS.  23 

CHAPTER  XLVII. 
Russian  Advance  Toward  Herat— Kiel's  Rebellion  — Home  Rule — The  Queen's 
Jubilee — Expulsion  of  French  Pretenders — Boulanger — Death  of  the  Ger- 
man Emperor — German  AfTairs — In  Many  Lands 576 

CHAPTER  XLVHI. 
Completion  of  Canadian  Pacific  Railway — Earthquakes — Ship  Canals — Stanley 
and  Emin — A  Xoteworthy  Expedition — •  Railroad  to  Samarcand  — Blowing 
Up  Hell  Gate — Bartholdi's  Statue  of  Liberty — The  Great  Blizzard — Xecro- 
logy   580 

CHAPTER  XLIX. 
Benjamin  Harrison  Becomes  President  of  the  United  States  —  Additions  to  the 
Union — Pan-American  Congress — Behring  Sea — The   McKinley  Tarifif — 
Controversies  with  Chili — Italian  Massacre  in  Xew  Orleans — Farmers'  Alli- 
ance      585 

CHAPTER  L. 
Boulanger  Trial — German  AiTairs — Resignation  of  Bismarck  —  African  Treaty 
— Triple  Alliance — Revolution  in  Brazil— War  in  Chili — The  Japanese  Con- 
stitution     591 

CHAPTER  LL 
Great  Storm  and  Disaster  at  Samoa — The  Johnstown  Flood  —  The  Washing- 
ton Centenary — The  Nicaragua  Canal  — •  \'arious  Achievements  —  Pear\-  in 
Greenland — The  Columbian  Celebration — The  Death  List 595 

CHAPTER  LII. 
Grover  Cleveland  Becomes  President  of  the  United   States  —  Ambassadors — 
Behring  Sea  Arbitration — Currency  Troubles  —  The  Silver  Controversy  — 
Bond  Issues — The  TarifT  Fight — Admission  of  Utah  —  Foreign  Affairs — 
The  Venezuela  Boundary — Election  of  McKinley 599 

CHAPTER  LIII. 
Assassination  of  President  Carnot  of  France — French  Operations  Abroad  — Uni- 
versal  Suffrage  in  Belgium — Italy   in  Abyssinia — African  AfTairs — China 
and  Japan — Revolts  in  Cuba  and  Crete 607 

CHAPTER  LIV. 
Columbian  Fair  and  Celebrations — Quick  Railroad  Time — The  Cherokee  Lands 
—  Centenar>'  of  the  Capitol  —  Great   Achievements — In    Austria-Hungary 
— Necrology 611 


24  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  LV. 

William  McKinley  Becomes  President  of  the  United  States — The  Dingley  Tariff 
— Partition  of  Samoa — Intervention  in  Cuba  —  "  Remember  the  Maine"  — 
Beginning  the  War — Manila  Bay — Cervera's  Fleet  — Santiago  — Peace  Ne- 
gotiations— The  Philippine  Insurrection  —  Events  of  the  Administration — 
Presidential  Election  614 

CHAPTER  L\I. 

War  Between  Greece  and  Turkey— Queen  Victoria's  Jubilee  —  Redeeming  the 
Soudan — Germany  in  China — The  Dreyfus  Case — Spoliation  of  Finland — 
Australian  Federation — The  Transvaal  War  —  Anarchist  Murders  —  The 
Boxer  Outbreak  in  China 621 

CHAPTER  LMI. 

Rudyard  Kipling  —  Electrical  Appliances — The  Germ  Theory  —  Liquid  Air — 
Rapid  Transit — Sewage  Disposal — Polar  Exploration — The  Crew —  Objects 
of  the  Expedition — The  Galveston  Flood — The  Death  Roll  627 


^^=: 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

Progress  of  the  Century Frontispiece 

1800      Presidents  of  the  United  States  during  the  19th  Century 31 

Thomas  Jefferson,         1 801 -1809 

James  Madison,  1809- 18 17 

James  Monroe,  1817-1825 

John  Quincy  Adams,  1825-1829 

Andrew  Jackson,  1829- 1837 

Martin  Van  Buren,       183 7-1 841 

Wm.  H.  Harrison,       1841 

1800      American  Fashions 32 

1804      First  Balloon  raised  in  the  United  States 49 

1804  Duel  between  Alexander  Hamilton  and  Aaron  Burr      50 

1805  Battle  of  Trafalgar 55 

1806  Fulton's  First  Steamboat  on  the  Seine,  Paris 56 

1807  Officers   of  the    "Chesapeake"    offering  their  swords  to  the  officers  of 

the  "Leopard" 65 

1807  Fulton's  Steamboat  on  the  Hudson  River 66 

1808  Scene  in  a  Convent  during  the  Franco-Spanish  War 71 

1809  Napoleon  at  the  Battle  of  Wagram 72 

1810  Prominent  Inventors  of  the  Nineteenth  Century  : 89 

James  Watt 
Robert  Fulton 
Samuel  F.  B.  Morse 
Elias  Howe 
Robert  Stephenson 
Eli  Whitney 
Friedrich  Krupp 
Henry  Bessemer 
Louis  Daguerre 

1810  Slave  Auction  in  St.  Augustine,  Florida 90 

181 1  General  Harrison  and  Tecumseh — the  Indian   Chief 95 

181 1  Course  of  the  Great  Comet  near  the  Rhine,  Germany 96 

1812  Capture  of  the  "  Guerriere  "  by  the  "Constitution" 105 

I812      Napoleon  on  the  Road  to  Russia 106 

1812  Napoleon  Retreating  from  Moscow Ill 

1813  Perry's  Victory  on  Lake  Erie 112 

1814  McDonough  Pointing  the  Gun  at  the  Battle  of  Lake  Champlain  ...  129 

1815  Napoleon  Returning  from  Elba 130 

35 


26  LIST  OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 

I815  General  Wellington  at  the  Battle  of  Belle  Alliance 135 

I815  General  Blucher  at  the  Battle  of  Waterloo 136 

1815  Napoleon        •    •  145 

I815  Napoleon's  Cavalry  Charge  at  Waterloo 146 

181 5  Napoleon  on  Board  the  "  Bellerophon  " 151 

I815  Decatur's  Struggle  with  the  Algerians 152 

I819  "Savannah" — First  Steamship  Crossing  the  Atlantic  Ocean     ....  169 

I82I  Pioneers  Crossing  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains 170 

1823  Early  Settlers  in  the  Far  West 175 

1823  "Washington" — First    Steamship    Between    the    United    States    and 

Germany 176 

1824  Lafayette  Laying  the  Corner  Stone  of  Bunker  Hill  Monument      ...  185 

1825  First  Steam  Railway  Between  Stockton  and  Darlington,  England     .    .  186 

1825    American  Fashions 191 

1825    Great  Scientists  of  the  Nineteenth  Century  : 192 

Charles  R.  Darwin 
Thomas  H.  Huxley 
Alexander  von  Humboldt 
Sir  John  Herschel 
Justus  Liebig 

1827  Naval  Battle  of  Navarino      209 

1828  First  Steam  Railway  in  the  United  States 2IO 

1830  Indians  Plundering  Cattle  in  South  Carolina 215 

1835  Dangers  of  Frontier  Life 2i6 

1838  Thomas  Simpson  Discovering  Victoria  Land 225 

1838  Col.  Taylor  at  the  Battle  of  Okeechobee 226 

I84I  Presidents  of  the  United  States  during  the  Nineteenth  Century  :    ...  231 

John  Tyler,  184 1- 1 845 

James  K.  Polk,  1 845-1 849 

Zachary  Taylor,  1849-1850 

Millard  Fillmore,  1850-1853 

Franklin  Pierce,  1853- 1857 

James  Buchanan  1857-1861 

Abraham  Lincoln,  1861-1865 

1847  Battle  of  Buena  Vista — Mexican  War 232 

1847  General  Scott  at  Contreras,  Mexico 249 

1847  General  Scott  Entering  the  City  of  Mexico 250 

1848  French  Revolution — Populace  Destroying  the  Throne 255 

1850  American  Fashions       256 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS.  2"] 

1850      Eminent  Statesmen  of  the  Nineteenth  Century  :      .........     265 

Daniel  Webster 
Henry  Clay 
Benjamin  Disraeli 
Prince  Bismarck 
James  G.  Blaine 
John  C.  Calhoun 
Lord  Salisbury 

1850  Street  Scene  in  Paris  in  the  Middle  of  the  Century 266 

1850  Stage  and  Mail  Coach  in  the  Middle  of  the  Century       271 

1850  Henry  Clay  Making  his  Famous  Speech  on  the  "Missouri  Compromise" 

in  the  United  States  Senate      272 

1855  Storming  of  the  "  Malakoff  " — Crimean  War 289 

1855  Projectors  of  the  First  Trans-Atlantic  Cable 290 

1855  Paris  Industrial  Fair      295 

1856  Slaves  Working  on  a  Southern  Plantation 296 

1857  "  Great  Eastern  "  Laying  the  First  Trans-Atlantic  Cable       305 

1859  Petroleum  Wells  Opened  in  Pennsylvania 306 

1859  Napoleon  IIL  at  the  Battle  of  Solferino 311 

1859  Battle  of  Magenta  between  the  Austrians  and  Italians 312 

i860  Leading  Generals  and  Admirals  of  the  Nineteenth  Century  :      ....  329 

General  Wellington 
General  Lee 
General  Sherman 
General  Miles 
General  Roberts 
General  von  Moltke 
General  Meade 
Admiral  Farragut 
Admiral  Dewey 

I86I  Firing  on  Fort  Sumter 330 

1861  Defending  Fort  Sumter 335 

1862  Farragut's  Fleet  Passing  Forts  Jackson  and  St.  Philip 336 

1862  Battle  between  the  "  Merrimac  "  and  "  Monitor  " 345 

1862  An  August  Morning  with  Farragut 346 

1862  "  Merrimac  "  Sinking  the  "  Cumberland  " 351 

1863  Battle  of  Gettysburg 352 

1863     Battle  of  Chattanooga 369 

1863  Lincoln  Delivering  his  Famous  Address  at  Gettysburg 370 

1864  Sinking  of  the  "Alabama"  by  the  "  Kearsarge  "  off  the  Coast  of  France   375 


28  LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1865    Assassination  of  President  Lincoln 376 

1865     Presidents  of  the  United  States  During  the  Nineteenth  Century  :    .    ,    .     385 

Andrew  Johnson,  1865-1869 

Ulysses  S.  Grant,  1869- 1877 

Rutherford  Hayes,  1 877-1 881 

James  A.  Garfield,  1881 

Chester  A.  Arthur,  1881-1885 

Grover  Cleveland,  1885-1889 

Benjamin  Harrison,  1889- 1893 

Grover  Cleveland,  1893 -1897 

1868  Indians  Attacking  an  Overland  Coach 386 

1869  First  Steamers  Passing  Through  the  Suez  Canal 391 

1869  Opening  the  Central  Pacific  Railway 392 

1870  Famous  Poetry  and  Prose  Writers  of  the  Nineteenth  Century  :     .    .    .     409 

Lord  Tennyson 

Charles  Dickens 

Thomas  Carlyle 

Sir  Walter  Scott 

Lord  Byron 

Johann  Wolfgang  von  Goethe 

Victor  Hugo 

James  Fennimore  Cooper 

John  Ruskin 

1870     Charge  of  the  French  Dragoons  at  Gravelotte 410 

1870     Bismarck  Meeting  Napoleon  after  the  Battle  of  Sedan 415 

1870  Storming  a  Retreat — Franco-Prussian  War 416 

1871  Cruelties  of  War — Shooting  Spies 425 

I87I     Stanley  Finds  Livingstone  in  Africa 426 

1873     Capitol  at  Washington  Completed 431 

1875     American  Fashions 432 

1875  Famous  Poetry  and  Prose  Writers  of  the  Nineteenth  Century  :     .    .    .     449 

Henry  W.  Longfellow 
William  Cullen  Bryant 
Oliver  Wendell  Holmes 
John  G.  Whittier 
James  Russell  Lowell 
Ralph  Waldo  Emerson 
Washington  Irving 
Harriet  Beecher  Stowe 
Mark  Twain 

1876  Birdscye  View  of  the  Centennial  Exhibition  at  Philadelphia 450 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS.  99 

1878  Berlin  Congress 455 

1878  Thomas  Edison,  Inventor  of  the  Phonograph 456 

I88I  Laings  Nek  and  Majuba  Hill — Scene  of  Colley's  Repulse 465 

1883  Completion  of  the  Brooklyn  Bridge 466 

1884  Gen.  Gordon  on  the  Road  to  Khartoum      471 

1886  Bartholdi's  "  Statue  of  Liberty,"  Erected  in  New  York  Harbor    .    .    .  472 

1889  Eiffel  Tower— World's  Fair,  Paris 489 

1890  Noted  Music  Composers  of  the  Nineteenth  Century  : 490 

Wagner 

Beethoven 

Franz  Liszt 

Felix  Mendelssohn 

Mascagni 

Paderewski 

John  Philip  Sousa 

1890  Completion  of  the  Firth  of  Forth  Bridge,  Scotland 49S 

1893  Birdseye  View  of  the  World's  Fair,  Chicago 496 

1893  Gladstone  Introducing  the  Irish  Home  Rule  Bill  in  Parliament     .    .    .  505 

1895  Louis  Pasteur  in  his  Laborator>' SO^ 

1895  Popular  Actors  and  Actresses  of  the  Nineteenth  Century  : 51 1 

Edwin  Booth 
Edwin  Forrest 
Jenny  Lind 
Sarah  Bernhardt 
Mdme.  Adelina  Patti 
Henry  Irving 
J.  P.  Kemble 
Joseph  Jefferson 
Richard  Mansfield 

1896  Italians  Fighting  Against  King  Menelik  in  Abyssinia 512 

1896  Czar  Nicholas  II.  Crowns  Himself  in  the  Kremlin  of  Moscow  .    ...     529 

1897  Queen  Victoria's  Diamond  Jubilee 53^ 

1899      Battle  of  Manila  Bay 535 

1899  Peace  Conference  at  The  Hague,  Holland 536 

1900  American  Fashions 545  ' 

1900  United  States  Government  Building,  Paris  Universal  Exposition    .    .    .  546 

1900      Leading  Rulers  of  the  World  : SSI 

President  of  the  United  States 
Queen  of  England 
President  of  France 
Emperor  of  Germany 
Czar  of  Russia 


30  •  LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1900      Leading  Rulers  of  the  World  (continued) 552 

Queen  of  Holland 

King  of  Norway  and  Sweden 

King  of  Denmark 

King  of  Belgium 

King  of  Greece 

1900      Leading  Rulers  of  the  World  (continued) 569 

Emperor  of  Austria 
King  of  Italy- 
King  of  Spain 
Sultan  of  Turkey 
Khedive  of  Egypt 

1900      In  the  Bowels  of  the  Earth 570 

1900     At  the  Bottom  of  the  Sea     ....•• 587 

1900      Remarkable  Inventions  of  the  Nineteenth  Century: 588 

Typewriting  Machine 
Telegraph  Instrument 
Typesetting  Machine 
Sewing  Machine 
Gramophone 
Stationary  Engine 

1900      Remarkable  Inventions  of  the  Nineteenth  Century  : 605 

X-Ray  Machine 

Ten-inch  Disappearing  Rifle 

Automobile 

Electric  Light 

Telephone 

Underground  Electric  Railway  Car 

1900      Remarkable  Inventions  of  the  Nineteenth  Century  : 606 

Printing  Press 
Self-Binding  Harvester 
Locomotive 


-  ^ 

WM    H   HARRISON 


:300- PRESIDENTS   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES   DURING   THE   19TH  CENTURY 


1800— AMERICAN  FASHIONS 


CHAPTER  I. 


Da^wn  of  the  New  Century — Washington  the  National  Capital — War  with 

Tripoli — Ohio    Admitted    to    the   Union — Duel    Between    Hamilton 

and     Burr — The     Louisiana     Purchase — Re-election     of     Mr. 

Jefferson — Trouble    with     England    and     France — The 

Embargo — Impressment   of  Setwrnen — Chesapeake 

and      Leopard — The      First      Steamboat — 

Jefferson's   Retirement. 


THE  dawn  of  the  Nineteenth  Century,  on  January  i,  iSoi,  was 
marked  with  no  great  convulsion  of  nature  or  other  phenomenon. 
The  processes  of  the  universe  maintained  their  way  unmoved. 
Yet  there  was  ushered  in,  upon  the  terrestrial  stage,  the  greatest 
era  of  recorded  time,  and  forces  were  even  then  at  work  wnich  were 
destined  speedily  to  change  the  political  and  social  face  of  the  globe. 
Of  all  the  lands  of  the  earth,  only  two  continents  were  then  of  marked 
importance — Europe  and  North  America.  South  America  was  slumber- 
ing the  unquiet  sleep  of  mediaeval  Spanish  tyranny,  but  on  the  point  of 
awaking  with  tremendous  energy.  Asia  was  still  scarcely  touched  by 
the  hand  of  modern  progress,  and  most  of  its  countries  were  forbidden 
lands  to  all  outsiders.  Africa  was  emphatically  a  "Dark  Continent ;'' 
only  a  spot  here  and  there  and  on  its  extreme  borders  made  the  fight 
ing  ground  of  European  powers.  The  islands  of  the  sea  were 
practically   unknown. 

WASHINGTON    THE   NATIONAL   CAPITAL, 

In  the  United  States,  independence  had  become  an  established  fact, 
the  Constitution  was  in  full  working  order,  the  cit)^  of  Washington  had 
become  the  national  capital,  and  the  third  presidential  term,  that  of  John 
Adams,  was  drawing  to  its  close.  Adams  had  been  betrayed  by  men  of 
his  own  party,  and  his  party  had  been  rendered  unpopular  by  its  Alien 
and  Sedition  laws  and  other  acts.  Accordingly  a  second  term  had  been 
denied  to  Mr.  Adams,  and  Thomas  Jefferson,  his  political  opponent,  had 

3  36 


34  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  . 

been  elected  in  his  place.  This  had  been  effected  in  a  close  election. 
Jefferson  and  Aaron  Burr  had  each  received  the  same  number  of 
electoral  votes,  and  the  matter  had  then  been  referred  to  Congress, 
which  finally  chose  Jefferson  President  and  Burr  Vice-President.  As 
a  sequel  to  that  memorable  contest,  the  Constitution  was  amended,  and 
the  present  system  of  electing  President  and  Vice-President  was 
adopted. 

Mr.  Jefferson  was  the  leader  of  what  was  then  called  the  Republi- 
can party,  now  known  as  the  Democratic,  and  was  popularly  regarded 
as  the  Apostle  of  Democracy.  He  turned  his  back  upon  the  stateliness 
and  ceremony  that  had  marked  the  administrations  of  Washington  and 
Adams,  and  practiced  the  utmost  simplicity.  He  would  have  no  cere- 
monies at  the  White  House,  no  formal  receptions,  no  invited  guests. 
He  would  not  be  called  "Your  Excellency"  or  even  "The  Honorable." 
Even  the  title  "Mr."  was  repugnant  to  him.  "Citizen  Jefferson"  was 
his  favorite  appellation.  His  inauguration  was  marked  with  no  cere- 
mony, and  at  the  opening  of  Congress,  instead  of  going  before  it  in 
person  and  addressing  it,  as  Washington  and  Adams  had  done,  he  sent 
it  by  messenger — a  written  message — an  example  which  has  been  in- 
variably followed  by  all  Presidents  since. 

WAR   WITH   TRIPOLI. 

In  his  first  message  to  Congress  Jefferson  called  attention  to  the 
unjust  and  insolent  demands  of  the  pirate- fostering  government  of 
Tripoli  upon  the  United  States,  and  reported  that  he  had  sent  a  naval 
force  to  the  Mediterranean  to  resist  them.  In  1803  a  squadron  of  seven 
ships  was  sent  thither,  of  which  one  of  the  largest,  the  "  Philadelphia" 
frigate,  ran  aground  in  the  harbor  of  Tripoli  and  was  captured  by  the 
Tripolitans.  Soon  afterward.  Lieutenant  Stephen  Decatur,  with  seventy- 
five  men  in  a  small  vessel  which  had  been  taken  from  the  Tripolitans, 
stealthily  entered  the  harbor  in  the  evening,  boarded  the  "Philadelphia," 
killed  the  Tripolitan  crew,  and  set  the  ship  afire.  The  "  Philadelphia" 
was  destroyed,  and  Decatur  and  his  men  made  good  their  escape.  In 
July,  1804,  a  general  attack  was  made  by  the  American  fleet  upon 
Tripoli,  in  which  Decatur  again  greatly  distinguished  hunself.  Further 
operations  checked  the  piratical  zeal  of  Tripoli,  and  added  great  lustre 
to  the  American  arms. 


STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS.  35 

During  Jefferson's  administration  the  United  States  Military  Acad- 
emy, at  West  Point,  N.  Y.,  was  founded,  and  thus  provision  was  made 
for  the  military  as  well  as  the  naval  efficiency  of  the  nation. 

OHIO   ADMITTED   TO   THE   UNION. 

At  the  beginning  of  Mr.  Jefferson's  administration  the  Union  con- 
sisted of  sixteen  States — Vermont,  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  having 
been  added  to  the  original  thirteen.  Early  in  his  administration  in 
1803,  Ohio  was  admitted  as  the  seventeenth  State.  A  little  later  the 
Territory  of  Michigan  was  formed,  and  the  way  thus  opened  for  the 
ultimate  creation  of  another  State. 

Nor  was  this  the  only  step  toward  great  expansion  of  the  area  of 
the  Nation.  Early  in  his  first  tern  Jefferson  dispatched  an  expedition, 
under  the  lead  of  Lewis  and  Clarke,  two  Virginians,  to  cross  the  con- 
tinent to  the  Pacific  coast,  to  take  possession  of  the  country  in  the  name 
of  the  United  States.  This  expedition  made  its  way  up  the  Missouri 
River,  across  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  down  the  Columbia  River  lo 
the  Pacific,  reaching  the  coast  in  1805.  This  led  to  the  establishment, 
six  years  later,  of  John  Jacob  Astor's  fur-trading  post  at  Astoria,  and 
the  settlement  of  the  region  now  forming  the  States  of  Oregon  and 
Washington. 

DUEL  BETWEEN  HAMILTON  AND  BURR. 

On  July  12,  1804,  Alexander  Hamilton,  probably  the  greatest 
statesman  the  Western  Hemisphere  has  ever  produced,  died  in  New 
York,  in  consequence  of  a  wound  inflicted  by  Aaron  Burr  in  a  duel 
fought  at  Hoboken  the  day  before.  The  two  men  were  political  oppo- 
nents, and  their  quarrel  arose  out  of  a  political  controversy,  in  which 
Burr  deemed  his  ambitious  schemes  imperilled  by  Hamilton,  and  accord- 
ingly determined  to  remove  the  latter  from  his  path.  The  result  was 
that  the  land  was  plunged  into  all  but  universal  mourning,  and  from  that 
moment  forward  Burr  was  regarded  with  general  detestation. 

Finding  himself  a  political  outcast,  Burr  thereupon  played  the  part 
of  a  traitor.  Leaguing  himself  with  other  unscrupulous,  ambitious  and 
discontented  men,  he  formed  the  scheme  of  establishing  in  the  south- 
western part  of  this  country  an  Empire  of  which  he  should  be  the  head. 
New  Orleans  was  to  be  his  capital  city.  He  was  arrested  and  tried  for 
treason  in  1807,  but  for  lack  of  technical  evidence  was  not  convicted. 
On  his  release  he  went  abroad  and  entlctl  his  days  in  obscurity. 


36  STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED   YEARS. 

THE   LOUISIANA   PURCHASE. 

The  great  measure  of  the  first  term  of  Mr.  Jefferson's  administra 
tion  was  the  acquisition  and  annexation  to  the  United  States  of  the  great 
country  of  Louisiana,  which  was  purchased  of  France  for  the  sum  of 
5^15,000,000.  This  country  was  first  colonized  by  the  French  in  1699. 
In  1752,  it  was  ceded  by  France  to  Spain,  and,  in  iSoo,  it  was  ceded 
baclv  by  Spain  to  France.  Upon  receiving  intelhgence  of  this  intended 
transfer,  great  sensibility  prevailed  in  Congress,  and  a  proposition  was 
made  to  occupy  the  place  by  force  ;  but,  after  an  animated  discussion, 
the  project  was  relinquished,  and  negotiations  with  France  were  com- 
menced by  Mr.  Jefferson  for  the  purchase  of  the  whole  country  of 
Louisiana,  which  ended  in  an  agreement  to  that  effect,  signed  at  Paris, 
April  30,  1S03,  by  which  the  United  States  were  to  pay  France 
$15,000,000.  Early  in  December,  1S03,  the  commissioners  of  Spain 
delivered  possession  to  France,  and,  on  the  20th  of  the  same  month,  the 
authorities  of  France  duly  transferred  the  country  to  the  United  States. 

re:-election  of  mr.  jefferson 

In  1805  Mr.  Jefferson  was  elected  a  second  time  to  the  office  of 
President.  The  electoral  votes  were  176,  of  which  he  received  162. 
George  Clinton  was  chosen  Vice-President. 

At  the  time  when  Mr.  Jefferson  was  raised  to  the  presidency,  the 
state  of  the  country  was  highly  prosperous,  and  it  so  continued  during 
his  first  presidential  term.  The  conflicts  between  the  two  great  political 
parties,  which  had  greatly  agitated  the  country  during  the  preceding 
administration,  still  continued  ;  but  the  party  which  sustained  Mr.  Jeffer- 
son increased  in  strength  to  such  a  degree  that  he  was  re-elected  by  an 
almost  unanimous  vote. 

trouble  with  ENGLAND  AND  FRANCE. 

The  war  which  had  for  a  number  of  years  been  raging  between 
Great  Britain  and  France  had  involved  nearly  all  the  nations  of  Europe. 
America  endeavored  to  maintain  a  neutrality  towards  the  belligerents, 
and  peaceably  to  carry  on  a  commerce  with  them.  Being  the  great 
neutral  trader,  she  had  an  interest  in  extending  the  privileges  of  neu- 
trality, which  the  belligerents,  on  the  contrary,  were  inclined  to  contract 
within  the  narrowest  limits.     In  April,  1806,  the  British  ship  "Leander" 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  37 

fired  upon  the  American  coaster  "Richard,"  off  Sandy  Hook,  kilhng  the 
hehiisman.  This  incident  added  much  to  the  strain  upon  relations 
between  the  two  countries.  In  May,  1806,  the  Britisn  Government 
declared  all  the  ports  and  rivers,  from  the  Elbe  in  Germany  to  Brest  in 
France,  to  be  blockaded,  and  all  American  vessels,  trading  with  these 
interdicted  ports,  were  liable  to  seizure  and  condemnation.  In  the  ensu- 
ing November,  1806,  the  Emperor  of  France  issued  his  Berlin  Decree, 
declaring  the  British  Islands  in  a  state  of  blockade,  and  prohibiting  all 
intercourse  with  them.  Next  followed,  in  November,  1807,  the  British 
Orders  in  Council,  by  which  all  neutral  vessels,  trading  with  France, 
were  compelled  to  stop  at  a  British  port  and  pay  a  duty.  In  consequence 
of  this  measure,  Bonaparte  issued,  in  December,  1807,  the  Milan  Decree, 
by  which  every  vessel  which  should  submit  to  British  search,  or  consent 
to  any  pecuniary  exactions  whatever,  was  confiscated. 

THE  EMBARGO. 

In  the  same  month  (December,  1807),  on  the  recommendation  of 
Mr.  Jefferson,  Congress  laid  an  embargo  on  all  the  shipping  of  the 
United  States.  This  measure  was  designed  to  retaliate  on  both  Eng- 
land and  France,  and  also  to  put  the  United  States  in  a  better  state  of 
defence,  by  retaining  their  vessels  and  seamen  at  home  ;  but,  inasmuch 
as  it  annihilated  all  foreign  commerce,  it  operated  with  great  severity  on 
the  interests  of  the  people,  and  became  unpopular;  and  in  March,  1809, 
the  embareo  was  removed,  and  non-intercourse  with  France  and  Great 
Britain  was  substituted. 

While  matters  continued  in  this  state,  new  causes  of  provocation 
continually  occurred.  The  trade  of  the  United  States  was  harassed  by 
both  of  the  belligerents  ;  and  the  government  was  accused  in  Britain  of 
partiality  to  France,  and  in  France  of  pusillanimously  submitting  to  the 
insults  of  Britain. 

IMPRESSMENT  OF  SEAMEN. 

But  one  species  of  injury,  which  was  keenly  felt  and  loudly  com- 
plained of  in  this  country,  the  United  States  suffered  exclusively  from 
Britain.  This  was  the  impressment  of  her  seamen,  on  board  the  Ameri- 
can vessels,  by  British  men-of-war.  The  similarity  of  language  renders 
it  difficult  to  distinguish  American  from  British  seamen;  but  there  is  rea- 
son   to  believe,   that,  on   some  occasions,  the   British   officers  were  not 


38  STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

anxious  to  make  the  distinction,  being  determined,  at  all  hazards,  to 
procure  men  ;  and  American  seamen  were  compelled  to  serve  in  the 
British  navy  and  fight  the  battles  of  Britain. 

The  British,  on  the  other  hand,  complained  that  their  seamen 
escaped  on  board  American  vessels,  to  which  they  were  encouraged,  and 
where  they  were  carefully  concealed  ;  and  they  contended  for  the  right 
of  searching  American  merchant  vessels  for  their  own  runaway  seamen. 
This  custom  had  been  long  practiced  ;  was  a  fruitful  source  of  irritation 
and  was  submitted  to,  with  extreme  reluctance,  on  the  part  of  the 
Americans,  who  maintained  that,  under  British  naval  officers,  it  was 
often  conducted  in  the  most  arbitrary  manner,  with  little  regard  to  the 
feelings  of  those  against  whom  it  was  enforced  ;  and  that,  under  the 
color  of  this  search,  native  seamen  were  frequently  dragged  on  board 
British  vessels. 

CHESAPEAKE  AND  LEOPARD. 

The  custom  of  searching  for  British  seamen  had  hitherto  been  con- 
fined to  private  vessels,  but,  in  1807,  it  was  ascertained  that  four  seamen 
had  deserted  from  the  British  service,  and  entered  on  board  the  "Chesa- 
peake," an  American  frigate,  commanded  by  Commodore  Barron,  and 
carrying  36  guns.  Captain  Humphreys,  of  the  "Leopard,"  an  English 
frigate  of  50  guns,  in  compliance  with  the  orders  of  Admiral  Berkeley, 
followed  the  "Chesapeake"  beyond  the  Capes  of  \'irginia,  and,  after 
demanding  the  deserters,  fired  a  broadside  upon  the  American  frigate, 
and  killed  and  wounded  about  20  men.  The  "Chesapeake"  struck  her 
colors,  and  the  four  seamen  were  given  up. 

This  outrage  occasioned  a  general  indignation  throughout  the 
country,  and  was  deemed,  by  many,  in  conjunction  with  other  causes,  a 
sufficient  ground  for  declaring  war.  The  President  issued  a  proclama- 
tion, ordering  all  British  vessels  of  war  to  quit  the  waters  of  the  United 
States,  and  forbidding  all  intercourse  between  them  and  the  inhabitants. 
The  British  government  disavowed  the  attack  on  the  "Chesapeake;"  yet 
the  measures  taken  with  regard  to  the  affair  were  far  from  being  satis- 
factory to  the  government  of  this  country. 

THE  FIRST  STEAMBOAT. 

During  Jefferson's  administration,  steps  were  taken  tor  the  material 
enlargement  of  the  army  and  navy  to  meet  the  troublous  times  which 


STORY    OF   ONE    HUNDKEI>    YEARS.  39 

were  plainly  to  be  foreseen.  There  occurred,  also,  an  incident  which  was 
full  of  meaning  and  promise  for  the  future  of  not  only  the  navy  but  the 
mercantile  marine  and  the  whole  world  of  commerce.  This  was  the 
completion  of  Robert  Fulton's  first  steamboat,  the  "  Clermont,"  and  its 
successful  trial  trip  upon  the  Hudson  River.  People  traveled  far  to  see 
the  mysterious  vessel,  as  it  puffed  fire  and  smoke,  and  moved  through 
the  water  against  wind  and  tide,  without  sail,  paddle,  or  oar.  Great 
activity  in  steamboat  building  followed.  The  "Phoenix,"  another  paddle- 
wheel  boat,  built  by  John  Stevens,  was  put  upon  the  Delaware  in  1808. 
The  "Orleans,"  with  a  stern  wheel,  the  first  steamboat  on  the  Mis- 
sissippi, went  from  Pittsburg,  where  she  was  built,  to  New  Orleans  in 
fourteen  days  in  181 2. 

JEFFERSON'S   RETIREMENT. 

As  his  second  term  in  the  White  House  drew  to  a  close,  and  the 
time  came  for  the  election  of  another  President,  Mr.  Jefferson  signified 
his  determination  to  follow  and  confirm  the  example  of  Washington,  by 
retiring  to  private  life  at  the  expiration  of  his  second  term.  "  Never  did 
a  prisoner,"  said  he,  "  released  from  his  chains,  feel  such  relief  as  I  shall, 
on  shaking  off  the  shackles  of  power.  I  thank  God  for  the  opportunity 
of  retiring  from  them  without  censure,  and  carrying  with  me  the  most 
constant  proofs  of  public  approbation.  I  leave  everything  in  the  hands 
of  men  so  able  to  take  care  of  them,  that,  if  we  are  destined  to  meet 
misfortunes,  it  will  be  because  no  human  wisdom  could  avert  them." 
James  Madison  was  chosen  his  successor,  and  George  Clinton  re-elected 
Vice-President. 


CHAPTER  II. 


The    Napoleonic    Wars  —  Copenhagen  —  Alexandria  —  Reconstruction    of 

France — War   Renewed — England  Threatened  with  Invasion — Em- 

mett's   Rebellion — Napoleon   Made   Emperor — Ulm,  Trafalgar 

and  Austerlitz — Changing  the  Map  of  Europe — Jena  and 

Auerstadt  —  Friedland  —  The    Peninsular    War  — 

French     Troops    in     Madrid  —  Victories    of 

Napoleon. 


THE  Nineteenth  Century  opened  in  Europe  in  the  midst  of  the  era 
of  Napoleonic  wars.  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  then  Consul  of  France 
and  soon  to  be  Emperor,  had,  under  the  peace  of  Luneville,  been 
successfully  planning  a  union  of  the  northern  powers  against 
England.  On  December  16,  1800,  accordingly,  a  maritime  confederacy 
was  signed  by  Russia,  Sweden  and  Denmark,  and  soon  after  by  Prussia, 
as  an  acceding  party.  This  league,  aimed  principally  against  England, 
was  designed  to  protect  the  commerce  of  the  northern  powers  on  prin- 
ciples similar  to  the  armed  neutrality  of  1780  ;  but  its  effect  would  have 
been,  if  correctly  carried  out,  to  deprive  England,  in  great  part,  of  her 
naval  superiority.  The  Danish  government  had  previously  ordered  her 
armed  vessels  to  resist  the  search  of  British  cruisers,  and  the   Russian 

Emperor  had  issued  an  embargo  on  all  the  British  ships  in  his  harbors. 

• 

COPENHAGEN. 

England,  determined  to  anticipate  her  enemies,  despatched,  as  soon 
as  possible,  a  powerful  fleet  to  the  Baltic,  under  the  command  of  Nelson 
and  Sir  Hyde  Parker.  Passing  through  the  Sound,  under  the  fire  of  the 
Danish  batteries,  on  the  30th  of  March,  the  fleet  came  to  anchor  opposite 
the  harbor  of  Copenhagen,  which  was  protected  by  an  imposing  array  of 
forts,  men-of-war,  fire  ships  and  floating  batteries.  On  the  2d  of  April 
Nelson  brought  his  ships  into  the  harbor,  where,  in  a  space  not  exceed- 
ing a  mile  and  a  half  in  extent,  they  were  received  by  a  tremendous  fire 
from    more    than    2000    cannons.        The    English    replied    with    equal 

40 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  4I 

spirit,  and  after  four  hours  of  incessant  cannonade  the  whole  front  line  of 
Danish  vessels  and  fjoatingf  batteries  was  silenced,  with  a  loss  to  the 
Danes  of  more  than  6000  men.  The  English  loss  was  1200.  Of  this 
battle  Nelson  said,  "I  have  been  in  105  engagements,  but  that  of 
Copenhagen  was  the  most  terrible  of  them  all." 

While  Nelson  was  preparing  to  follow  up  his  success  by  attacking 
the  Russian  fleet  in  the  Baltic,  news  reached  him  of  an  event  at  St. 
Petersburg  which  changed  the  whole  current  of  Northern  policy.  A 
conspiracy  of  Russian  noblemen  was  formed  against  the  Emperor  Paul, 
who  was  strangled  in  his  chamber  on  the  night  of  the  24th  of  March. 
His  son  and  successor,  Alexander,  at  once  resolved  to  abandon  the  con- 
federacy, and  to  cultivate  the  friendship  of  Great  Britain.  Sweden, 
Denmark  and  Prussia  followed  his  example  ;  and  thus  was  dissolved,  in 
less  than  six  months  after  it  had  been  formed,  the  League  of  the  North — 
the  most  formidable  confederacy  ever  arrayed  against  the  maritime 
power  of  England. 

ALEXANDRIA. 

While  these  events  were  transpiring  in  Europe,  the  army  which 
Napoleon  had  left  in  Egypt  under  the  command  of  Kleber,  after  losing 
its  leader  by  the  hands  of  an  obscure  assassin,  was  doomed  to  yield  to  an 
English  force  sent  out  under  Sir  Ralph  Abercrombie,  who  fell  at  the  head 
of  his  victorious  columns  on  the  plains  of  Alexandria.  By  the  terms  of 
capitulation  the  French  troops,  to  the  number  of  24,000,  were  con- 
veyed to  France  with  their  arms,  baggage  and  artillery.  As  Malta 
had  previously  surrendered  to.  the  British,  there  was  now  little  left 
to  contend  for  between  France  and  England.  To  the  great  joy  of  both 
nations  preliminaries  of  peace  were  signed  at  London  on  the  ist  of 
October,  and  on  the  27th  of  March,  1802,  tranquillity  was  restored 
throughout  Europe  by  the  definite  treaty  of  Amiens. 

RECONSTRUCTION  OF  FRANCE. 

Napoleon  now  directed  all  his  energies  to  the  reconstruction  of 
society  in  France,  the  general  improvement  of  the  country,  and  the  con- 
solidation of  the  power  he  had  acquired.  By  a  general  amnesty  one 
hundred  thousand  emigrants  were  enabled  to  return  ;  the  Roman 
Catholic  relieion  was  restored,  to  the  discontent  of  the  Parisians,  but  to 
the  great  joy  of  the  rural  population  ;  a  system  of  public  instruction  was 


42  sroR\     OK    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

established  under  the  auspices  of  the  government ;  to  bring  back  that 
gradation  of  rank  in  society  that  the  Revolution  had  overthrown,  the 
Legion  of  Honor  was  instituted,  an  order  of  nobility  founded  on  personal 
merit ;  great  public  works  were  set  on  foot  throughout  France ;  the 
collection  of  the  heterogeneous  laws  of  the  Monarchy  and  the  Republic 
into  one  consistent  whole,  under  the  title  of  the  Code  Napoleon,  was 
commenced,  an  undertaking  which  has  deservedly  covered  the  name  of 
Napoleon  with  glory,  and  survived  all  the  other  achievements  of  his 
genius  ;  and  finally  the  French  nation,  as  a  permanent  pledge  of  their 
confidence,  by  an  almost  unanimous  vote,  conferred  upon  their  favorite 
and  idol  the  title  and  authority  of  consul  for  life. 

In  his  relations  with  foreign  states  the  conduct  of  Napoleon  was  less 
honorable.  He  arbitrarily  established  a  government  in  Holland,  entirely 
subservient  to  his  will  ;  and  he  moulded  the  northern  Italian  republics  at 
his  pleasure  ;  he  interfered  in  the  dissensions  of  the  Swiss  cantons  to 
establish  a  government  in  harmony  with  the  monarchical  institutions 
which  he  was  introducing  in  Paris,  and  when  the  Swiss  resisted  he  sent 
Ney  at  the  head  of  twenty  thousand  men  to  enforce  obedience.  England 
remonstrated  in  vain,  and  the  Swiss,  in  despair,  submitted  to  the  yoke 
imposed  upon  them.  Napoleon  was  less  successful  in  an  attempt  to 
recover  the  island  of  St.  Domingo,  which  had  revolted  from  French 
authority.  Forces  to  the  number  of  35,000  men  were  sent  out 
to  reduce  the  island,  and  the  patriot  Toussaint  I'Ouverture  was  betrayed 
to  his  death,  but  nearly  all  the  French  troops  perished — victims  of 
fatigue,  disease,  and  the  perfidy  of  their  own  government. 

WAR  RENEWED. 

It  soon  became  evident  that  the  peace  of  Amiens  could  not  be  per- 
manent. The  encroachments  of  France  upon  the  feebler  European 
powers,  the  armed  occupation  of  Holland,  the  great  acf;umulations  of 
troops  on  the  shores  of  the  British  Channel,  and  the  evident  designs  of 
Napoleon  upon  Egypt,  excited  the  jealousy  of  England,  and  the  latter 
refused  to  evacuate  Malta,  Alexandria  and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  in 
accordance  with  the  late  treaty  stipulations,  until  satisfactory  explanations 
should  be  given  by  the  French  government.  Bitter  recriminations  fol- 
lowed on  both  sides,  and  in  the  month  of  May,  1803,  the  cabinet  of 
London  issued  letters  of  marque  and  an  embargo  on  all   French  vessels 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  43 

in  British  ports.     Napoleon  retaliated  by  ordering  the  arrest  of  all  the 
English  then  in  France  between  the  ages  of  eighteen  and  si.xty  years. 

ENGLAND   THREATENED   WITH    INVASION. 

The  first  military  operations  ot  the  French  were  rapid  and  success- 
ful. The  electorate  of  Hanover,  a  dependency  of  England,  was  quickly 
conquered,  and  in  utter  disregard  of  neutral  rights  the  whole  of  the 
north  of  Germany  was  at  once  occupied  by  French  troops,  while  simul- 
taneously an  army  was  sent  into  southern  Italy  to  take  possession  of  the 
Neapolitan  territories.  But  these  movements  were  insignificant  when 
compared  with  Napoleon's  gigantic  preparations  ostensibly  for  the  inva- 
sion of  England.  Forts  and  batteries  were  constructed  on  every  head- 
land and  accessible  point  of  the  channel  :  the  number  of  vessels  and 
small  craft  assembled  along  the  coast  was  immense;  and  the  fleets  of 
France,  Holland  and  Spain  were  to  aid  in  the  enterprise.  England 
made  the  most  vigorous  preparations  tor  repelling  the  anticipated  inva- 
sion, which,  however,  was  not  attempted,  and  perhaps  never  seriously 
intended. 

EMMETT'S  REBELLION. 

The  year  of  the  renewal  of  the  war  was  further  distinguished  by  an 
unhappy  attempt  at  rebellion  in  Ireland  against  the  union  of  Ireland  with 
Great  Britain,  which  had  been  effected  at  the  beginning  of  the  century. 
The  leaders,  Russell  and  Emmett,  were  seized,  brought  to  trial,  and  ex- 
ecuted. Early  in  the  following  year,  1804,  a  conspiracy  against  the 
power  of  Napoleon  was  detected  in  which  the  generals,  Moreau  and 
Pichegru,  and  the  royalist  leader,  Georges,  were  implicated.  Moreau 
was  allowed  to  leave  the  country,  Pichegru  was  found  strangled  in  prison 
and  Georges  was  executed.  Napoleon,  either  believing,  or  affecting  to 
believe,  that  the  young  Duke  D'Enghien,  a  Bourbon  prince,  then  living 
in  the  neutral  territory  ot  Baden,  was  concerned  in  this  plot,  caused  him 
to  be  seized  and  hurried  to  Vincennes,  where,  after  a  mock  trial,  he  was 
shot  by  the  sentence  of  a  court-martial,  an  act  which  has  fi.xed  an  indeli- 
ble stain  on  the  memory  of  Napoleon,  as  not  the  slightest  evidence  of 
criminality  was  brought  against  the  unhappy  prince. 

Owine  to  the  intimate  connection  that  had  been  formed  between  the 
courts  of  Paris  and  Madrid,  England  sent  out  a  fleet  in  the  autumn  of 
1804,  before  any  declaration   of  war  had  been   made,  to  interrupt  the 


44  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

homeward-bound  treasure  frigates  of  Spain  ;  and  these  were  captured, 
with  valuable  treasure  amounting  to  more  than  two  million  pounds  ster- 
ling. The  British  government  was  severely  censured  for  this  hasty  act. 
Spain  now  openly  joined  France  and  declared  war  against  England. 

NAPOLEON   MADE  EMPEROR. 

On  the  1 8th  of  May  of  this  year  Napoleon  was  created,  by  decree 
of  the  Senate,  Emperor  of  the  French,  and  on  the  2d  of  December, 
1804,  was  solemnly  crowned  by  the  Pope,  who  had  been  induced  to 
come  to  Paris  for  that  purpose.  The  principal  powers  of  Europe,  with 
the  exception  of  Great  Britain,  recognized  the  new  sovereign.  On  the 
26th  of  May  of  the  following  year  he  was  formally  anointed  sovereign 
of  Northern  Italy.  The  iron  crown  of  Charlemagne,  which  had  quietly 
reposed  a  thousand  years,  was  brought  forward  to  give  interest  to  the 
ceremony,  and  Napoleon  placed  it  on  his  own  head,  at  the  same  time 
pronouncing  the  words,  "God  hath  given  it  to  me;  beware  of 
touchincr  it." 

The  continued  usurpations  charged  upon  Napoleon  at  length  in- 
duced the  Northern  Powers  to  listen  to  the  solicitations  of  England  ; 
and  in  the  summer  of  1805  a  new  coalition,  embracing  Russia,  Austria 
and  Sweden,  was  formed  against  France.  Prussia,  tempted  by  the  glit- 
tering prize  of  Hanover,  which  Napoleon  held  out  to  her,  persisted  in 
her  neutrality,  with  an  evident  leaning  towards  the  French  interest. 
The  Austrian  Emperor  precipitately  commenced  the  war  by  invading  the 
neutral  territory  of  Bavaria,  an  act  as  unjustifiable  as  any  of  which  he 
accused  Napoleon.  The  latter  seized  the  opportunity  of  branding  his 
enemies  as  aggressors  in  the  contest,  and  declared  himself  the  protector 
of  the    liberties  of  Europe. 

ULM,  TRAFALGAR  AND  AUSTERLITZ. 

In  the  latter  part  of  September,  1805,  tne  French  forces,  in  eight 
divisions,  and  numbering  180,000  men,  were  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhine, 
preparing  to  carry  the  war  into  Austria.  The  advance  of  Napoleon  was 
rapid,  and  everywhere  the  enemy  was  driven  before  him.  On  the  20th 
of  October  Napoleon,  having  surrounded  the  Austrian  general.  Mack, 
at  Ulm,  compelled  him  to  surrender  his  whole  force  of  20,000  men.  On 
the  very  next  day,  however,  the   English  fleet,  commanded  by  Admiral 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  45 

Nelson,  gained  a  great  naval  victory  off  Cape  Trafalgar,  over  the  com- 
bined fleets  of  France  and  Spain  ;  but  it  was  dearly  purchased  by  the 
death  of  the  hero.  On  the  13th  of  November  Napoleon  entered 
Vienna,  and  on  the  2d  of  December  he  gained  the  great  battle  of  Aus- 
terlitz,  the  most  glorious  of  all  his  victories,  which  resulted  in  the  total 
overthrow  of  the  combined  Russian  and  Austrian  armies,  and  enabled 
the  victor  to  dictate  peace  on  his  own  terms.  The  Emperor  of  Russia, 
who  was  not  a  party  to  the  treaty,  withdrew  his  troops  into  his  own  ter- 
ritories ;  the  King  of  Prussia  received  Hanover  as  a  reward  of  his  neu- 
trality ;  and  Great  Britain  alone  remained  at  open  war  with  France. 

CHANGING  THE  MAP  OF  EUROPE. 

While  the  English  now  prosecuted  the  war  with  vigor  on  the  ocean, 
humbled  the  Mahratta  powers  in  India,  subdued  the  Dutch  colony  of  the 
Cape  and  took  Buenos  Ayres  from  the  Spaniards,  Napoleon  rapidly 
extended  his  supremacy  over  the  continent  of  Europe.  In  February, 
1S06,  he  sent  an  army  to  take  possession  of  Naples,  because  the  king, 
instigated  by  his  queen,  an  Austrian  princess,  had  received  an  army  of 
Russians  and  English  into  his  capital.  The  king  of  Naples  fled  to  Sicily, 
and  Napoleon  conferred  the  vacant  crown  upon  his  brother  Joseph. 
Napoleon  next  placed  his  brother  Louis  on  the  throne  of  Holland  ;  he 
erected  various  districts  in  Germany  and  Italy  into  dukedoms,  which  he 
bestowed  on  his  principal  marshals,  while  fourteen  princes  in  the  south 
and  west  of  Germany  were  induced  to  form  the  Confederation  of  the 
Rhine  and  place  themselves  under  the  protection  of  France.  By  this 
latter  stroke  of  policy  on  the  part  of  Napoleon  a  population  of  sixteen 
millions  was  cut  off  from  the  Germanic  dominion  of  Austria. 

In  the  negotiations  which  Napoleon  was  at  this  time  carrying 
on  with  England,  propositions  were  made  for  the  restoration  of  Han- 
over to  that  power,  although  it  had  recently  been  given  to  Prussia. 
It  was,  moreover,  suspected  that  Napoleon  had  offered  to  win  the 
favor  of  Russia  at  the  expense  of  his  Prussian  ally.  These  and 
other  causes  aroused  the  indignation  of  the  Prussians,  and  the  Prus- 
sian monarch  openly  joined  the  coalition  against  Napoleon  before  his 
own  arrangements  were  completed  or  his  allies  could  yield  him  any 
assistance.  Both  England  and  Russia  had  promised  him  their  co- 
operation. 


46  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

J£NA  AND  AUERSTADT. 

With  his  usual  promptitude  Napoleon  put  his  troops  in  motion,  and 
on  the  8th  of  October  reached  the  advanced  Prussian  outposts.  On  the 
14th  he  routed  the  Prussians  with  terrible  slaughter  in  the  battle  of  Jena, 
and  on  the  same  day  Marshal  Davoust  gained  the  battle  of  Auerstadt, 
in  which  the  Duke  of  Brunswick  was  mortally  wounded.  On  these 
two  fields  the  loss  of  the  Prussians  was  nearly  20,000  in  killed  and 
wounded,  besides  nearly  as  many  prisoners.  The  total  loss  of  the 
French  was  14,000.  In  a  single  day  the  strength  of  the  Prussian 
monarchy  was  prostrated.  Napoleon  rapidly  followed  up  his  victories, 
and  on  the  25th  his  vanguard,  under  Marshal  Davoust.  entered  Berlin, 
only  a  fortnight  after  the  commencement  of  hostilities. 

Encouraged  by  his  successes,  Napoleon  issued  a  series  of  edicts 
from  Berlin,  declaring  the  British  Islands  in  a  state  of  blockade  and 
excluding  British  manufacturers  from  all  the  continental  ports.  He 
then  pursued  the  Russians  into  Poland  ;  on  the  30th  of  November  his 
troops  entered  Warsaw  without  resistance,  but  on  the  26th  of  December 
his  advanced  forces  received  a  check  in  the  severe  battle  of  Pultusk. 
On  the  8th  of  February,  1807,  a  sanguinary  battle  was  fought  at  Eylau, 
in  which  each  side  lost  20,000  men,  and  both  claimed  the  victory. 
In  some  minor  engagements  the  allies  had  the  advantage,  but  these  were 
more  than  counterbalanced  by  the  siege  and  fall  of  the  important  fortress 
of  Dantzic,  which  had  a  garrison  of  17,000  men,  and  was  defended  by 
900  cannon. 

FRIEDLAND. 

At  length,  on  the  14th  of  June,  Napoleon  fought  the  great  and 
decisive  battle  of  Friedland,  and  the  broken  remains  of  the  Russian  army 
fell  back  upon  the  Niemen.  An  armistice  was  now  agreed  to  ;  on  the 
25th  of  June  the  emperors  of  France  and  Russia  met  for  the  first  time, 
with  great  pomp  and  ceremony,  on  a  raft  in  the  middle  of  the  Niemen, 
and  on  the  7th  of  July  signed  the  treaty  of  Tilsit.  All  sacrifices  were 
made  at  the  expense  of  the  Prussian  monarch,  who  received  back  only 
about  one-half  of  his  dominions.  The  elector  of  Saxony,  the  ally  of 
France,  was  rewarded  with  that  portion  of  the  Prussian  territory  which, 
prior  to  the  first  partition  in  1772,  formed  part  of  the  kingdom  of 
Poland  ;  this  portion  was  now  erected  into  the  grand-duchy  of  Warsaw. 
Out  of  another  portion  was  formetl   the  kingdom  of  Westphalia,  which 


STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS.  47 

was  bestowed  upon  Jerome  Bonaparte,  brother  of  Napoleon  ;  and 
Russia  agreed  to  aid  the  French  emperor  in  his  designs  against  British 
commerce. 

Soon  after  the  treaty  of  Tilsit  it  became  evident  to  England  that 
Napoleon  would  leave  no  means  untried  to  humble  that  power  on  the 
ocean,  and  it  was  believed  that,  with  the  connivance  of  Russia,  he  was 
making  arrangements  with  Denmark  and  Portugal  for  the  conversion  of 
their  fleets  to  his  purposes.  England,  menaced  with  an  attack  from  the 
combined  navies  of  Europe,  but  resolving  to  anticipate  the  blow,  sent  a 
powerful  squadron  against  Denmark,  with  an  imperious  demand  for  the 
instant  surrender  of  the  Danish  fleet  and  naval  stores,  to  be  held  as 
pledges  until  the  conclusion  of  the  war.  A  refusal  to  comply  with  this 
summons  was  followed  by  a  four-days'  bombardment  of  Copenhagen  and 
the  final  surrender  of  the  fleet.  Denmark,  though  deprived  of  her 
navy,  resented  the  hostility  of  England  by  throwing  herself  without 
reserve,  into  the  arms  of  France.  The  navy  of  Portugal  was  saved  from 
falling  into  the  power  of  France  by  sailing,  at  the  instigation  of  the 
British,  to  Rio  Janeiro,  the  capital  of  the  Portuguese  colony  of  Brazil. 
Napoleon  had  already  announced,  in  one  of  his  imperial  edicts,  that  "the 
House  of  Braganza  had  ceased  to  reign,"  and  had  sent  an  army  under 
Junot  to  occupy  Portugal.  On  the  27th  of  November  the  Portuguese 
fleet,  bearing  the  prince  regent,  the  queen  and  court,  sailed  for  Brazil; 
and  on  the  30th  the  French  took  possession  of  Lisbon. 

THE   PENINSULAR  WAR. 

The  designs  of  Napoleon  for  the  dethronement  of  the  Peninsular 
monarchs  had  been  approved  by  Alexander  in  the  conferences  of  Tilsit ; 
and  when  Napoleon  returned  to  Paris  he  set  on  foot  a  series  of  intrigues 
at  Madrid,  which  soon  gave  him  an  opportunity  of  interfering  in  the 
domestic  affairs  of  the  Spanish  nation,  his  recent  ally.  Charles  I\'  of 
Spain,  a  weak  monarch,  was  the  dupe  of  his  faithless  wife  and  of  his 
unprincipled  minister,  Godoy.  The  latter,  secured  in  the  French  interest 
by  the  pretended  gift  of  a  principality  formed  out  of  dismembered 
Portugal,  allowed  the  F"rench  troops  under  Murat  to  enter  Spain,  and 
by  fraud  and  false  pretences  the  frontier  fortresses  were  soon  in  the 
hands  of  the  invaders.  Too  late  Godoy  found  himself  the  dupe  of  his 
own  treachery.     Charles,  intimidated  by  the  difificulties  of  his  situation, 


48  STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

resigned  the  crown  to  his  son  Ferdinand,  but,  by  French  intrigues,  was 
soon  after  induced  to  disavow  his  abdication,  while  at  the  same  time 
Ferdinand  was  led  to  expect  a  recognition  of  his  royal  title  from  the 
Emperor  Napoleon.  The  deluded  prince  and  his  father  were  both 
enticed  to  Bayonne,  where  they  met  Napoleon,  who  soon  compelled  both 
to  abdicate,  and  gave  the  crown  to  his  brother  Joseph,  who  had  been 
summoned  from  the  kingdom  of  Naples  to  become  king  of  Spain.  The 
Neapolitan  kingdom  was  bestowed  upon  Murat  as  a  reward  for  his 
military  services. 

Although  many  of  the  Spanish  nobility  tamely  acquiesced  in  this 
foreign  usurpation  of  the  sovereignty  of  the  kingdom,  yet  the  great  bulk 
of  the  nation  rose  in  arms  ;  Ferdinand,  although  a  prisoner  in  France, 
was  proclaimed  king ;  a  national  junta,  or  council,  was  chosen  to  direct 
the  affairs  of  the  government ;  and  the  English  at  once  sent  large  sup- 
plies of  arms  and  ammunition  to  their  new  allies,  while  Napoleon  was 
preparing  an  overwhelming  force  to  sustain  his  usurpation.  A  new 
direction  was  thus  given  to  affairs,  and  for  a  time  the  European  war 
centered  in  the  Spanish  Peninsula. 

FRENCH  TROOPS  IN  MADRID. 

In  the  first  contests  with  the  invaders  the  Spaniards  were  generally 
successful.  A  French  squadron  in  the  Bay  of  Cadiz,  prevented  from 
escaping  by  the  presence  of  an  English  fleet,  was  forced  to  surrender ; 
Marshal  Moncey,  at  the  head  of  8000  men,  was  repulsed  in  an  attack 
on  the  city  of  Valencia ;  Saragossa,  defended  by  the  heroic  Palafox, 
sustained  a  siege  of  sixty-three  days,  and,  although  reduced  to  a  heap 
of  ruins,  drove  the  French  troops  from  its  walls  ;  Cordova  was  indeed 
taken  and  plundered  by  the  French  marshal  Dupont,  yet  that  officer 
himself  was  soon  after  compelled  to  surrender  at  Baylen,  with  8000  men, 
lo  the  patriot  general  Castanos.  This  latter  event  occurred  on  the  20th 
of  July,  the  very  day  on  which  Joseph  Bonaparte  made  his  triumphal 
entry  into  Madrid.  But  the  new  king  himself  was  soon  obliged  to  flee, 
and  the  French  forces  were  driven  beyond  the  Ebro. 

In  the  meantime  the  spirit  of  resistance  had  extended  to  Portugal  ; 
a  junta  had  been  established  at  Oporto  to  conduct  the  government; 
British  troops  were  sent  to  aid  the  insurgents,  and  on  the  2  ;st  of  August 
Marshal  Junot  was  defeated  at  Vimiera  by  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley.     This 


1804— FIRST  BALLOON  RAISED  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  5 1 

battle  was  followed  by  the  convention  of  Cintra,  which  led  to  the  evacu- 
ation of  Portugal  by  the  French  forces. 

VICTORIES  OF  NAPOLEON. 

Great  was  the  mortification  of  Napoleon  at  this  inauspicious  be- 
ginning of  the  Peninsular  war,  and  he  deemed  it  necessary  to  take  the 
field  in  person.  Collecting  his  troops  with  the  greatest  rapidity,  in  the 
early  part  of  November  he  was  in  the  north  of  Spain  at  the  head  of 
180,000  men.  He  at  once  communicated  his  own  energy  to  the 
operations  of  the  army  ;  the  Spaniards  were  severely  defeated  at  Rey- 
nosa,  Burgos  and  Tudela,  and  on  the  4th  of  December  Napoleon  forced 
an  entrance  into  the  capital.  The  British  troops,  who  were  marching  to 
the  assistance  of  the  Spaniards,  were  driven  back  upon  Corunna,  and 
being  there  attacked  while  making  preparations  to  embark,  they  com- 
pelled the  enemy  to  retire,  but  their  brave  commander,  Sir  John  Moore, 
was  mortally  wounded.  On  the  following  day  the  British  abandoned  the 
shores  of  Spain,  and  the  possession  of  the  country  seemed  assured  to  the 
French  Emperor.  In  the  meantime  difficulties  had  arisen  between  the 
French  Emperor  and  the  Pope  Pius  VII ;  French  troops  entered  Rome, 
and  by  a  decree  of  Napoleon  the  Papal  States  were  annexed  to  the 
French  Empire.  This  was  followed  by  a  bill  of  excommunication  against 
Napoleon,  whereupon  the  Pope  was  seized  and  conveyed  a  prisoner  into 
France,  where  he  was  detained  until  the  spring  of  181 4. 

Other  events  that  deserve  notice  were  the  conquest  and  annexation 
of  Georgia  by  Russia  in  1801,  the  independence  of  Hayti  in  1803,  the 
assumption  of  the  title  of  Emperor  by  the  sovereign  of  Austria,  the  death 
of  Pitt  in  1806,  the  formal  end  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  in  1806, 
Great  Britain's  abolition  of  the  slave  trade  in  1807,  and  Russia's  conquest 
of  Finland  in  1808. 


CHAPTER  III. 


General    Progress    of    the    World — Independence    of    Hayti — Seizure    of 
Toussuint — Bloody   Independence — King   Henry— Peruvian   Revolu- 
tion— Buenos    Ayres — Disaster    to    the    British — Storming    of 
Buenos  Ayres — Moving  for  Independence — Civil  Dissen- 
sions— Success  of  the  Revolution — Other  Countries 
Revolt — Colombian    Independence — Science 
and  Literature — American  Literature. 


THE  world  at  the  beginning  of  the  Nineteenth  Century  was  in  a 
transition  state.  Revolutionary  impulses  prevailed  in  politics,  and 
in  science  and  art  men  were  just  upon  the  verge  of  wonderful 
achievements,  of  which  the  first  premonitions  were  beginning  to 
be  appreciated.  In  electricity  the  discoveries  of  Franklin,  Volta  and 
Galvani  had  startled  the  world.  Lagrange  and  Laplace  had  developed 
mathematical  analysis.  Zoology  and  geology  had  been  erected  into 
definite  sciences  by  Buffon.  Linnaeus  had  done  the  same  for  botany. 
Lavoisier  had  laid  the  rudiments  of  the  vast  structure  of  the  chemical 
sciences.  Jenner  had  invented  vaccination.  The  Montgolfiers  had 
made  the  first  balloon.  Cook,  Bougainville  and  La  Perouse  had  carried 
on  the  work  of  the  great  navigators  of  earlier  centuries,  and  had  filled 
up  most  of  the  blank  spaces  on  the  map  of  the  world.  In  literature  it 
was  a  time  of  great  activity,  and  the  beginning  of  one  of  the  most  glori- 
ous eras  in  history. 

INDEPENDENCE   OF   HAYTI. 

The  early  years  of  the  century  saw  a  general  movement  among  the 
minor  states  of  the  Western  Hemisphere  to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  Euro- 
pean rule.  Among  the  first  of  these  was  Hayti,  where  the  negroes  were 
under  the  lead  of  Toussaint  I'Ouverture.  This  famous  man  was  born  a 
slave,  and  continued  so  for  nearly  fifty  years.  When  the  insurrection 
broke  out  he  refused  to  join  in  it,  and  assisted  in  procuring  his  master  a 
passage  to  the  LInited   States.     After  this   he  joined   the   French  forces 

52 


STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS.  53 

and  rose  by  successive  steps  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general.  He 
obtained  such  influence  that  all  the  proceedings  of  the  French  commis- 
sioners were  directed  by  him.  The  Directory  at  Paris  became  jealous 
of  him,  and  sent  out  General  Hedouville  to  observe  his  conduct  and  re- 
strain his  ambition.  Toussaint,  however,  refused  to  submit  to  his  man- 
agement. Bonaparte,  on  becoming  first  consul,  confirmed  him  as  com- 
mander-m-chief  and  Toussaint  succeeded  in  freeing  the  island  from  the 
English.  He  introduced  order  and  discipline  into  the  government,  and 
under  his  sway  the  colony  advanced,  as  if  by  enchantment,  towards  its 
ancient  splendor.  The  lands  were  again  put  under  cultivation  ;  all  the 
people  appeared  to  be  happy,  and  considered  Toussaint  as  their  guar- 
dian angel  ;  both  blacks  and  whites  regarded  him  with  esteem  and 
confidence. 

The  general  enthusiasm  which  he  had  excited  was  sufficient  to  instil 
vanity  into  the  strongest  mind,  and  he  had  some  excuse  for  saying  he  was 
the  Bonaparte  of  St  Domingo  !  He  had  in  early  life  stored  his 
memory  with  an  incoherent  jumble  of  Latin  phrases  from  the  psalter,  of 
which  he  made  a  whimsical  use  after  his  elevation.  Sometimes  a  negro 
or  mulatto  would  apply  to  be  made  a  magistrate  or  judge.  •'  Certainly," 
he  would  reply,  "you  understand  Latin,  of  course?"  "  No,  General." 
"  How  !  — wish  to  be  a  magistrate  and  not  know  Latin  !  "  And  then 
he  would  pour  forth  a  torrent  of  Latin  jargon,  which  sent  the  sable  can- 
didate away  with  the  opinion  that  the  general  was  a  most  portentous 
scholar. 

SEIZURE  OF  TOUSSAINT. 

The  prosperity  of  the  colony  was,  unfortunately,  of  short  continu- 
ance. After  the  peace  of  Amiens,  Bonaparte,  urged  on  by  the  expelled 
planters  and  mercantile  speculators,  determined  to  recover  the  colony, 
reinstate  the  former  proprietors  and  subjugate  the  emancipated  slaves. 
For  this  purpose  he  dispatched  his  brother-in-law.  General  Le  Clerc, 
with  a  force  of  25,000  men.  On  the  appearance  of  the  fleet  in  the  Bay 
of  Samana,  Toussaint  exclaimed,  "  We  shall  all  perish  ;  all  France  is  come 
to  St.  Domingo."  The  army  landed  and  several  desperate  battles  were 
fought.  Le  Clerc  at  last  found  himself  under  the  necessity  of  proclaim- 
ing liberty  and  equality  to  all  the  inhabitants,  with  the  reservation,  how- 
ever, of  the  approval  of  the  French  government.  The  negroes,  tired  of 
the  war,  deserted  their  leaders,  and  a  treaty  of  peace  was  concluded,  by 


54  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

which  the  sovereignty  of  France  over  the  island  was  acknowledged  and 
a  general  amnesty  granted.  In  direct  violation  of  this  agreement  Tous- 
saint  was  seized  by  Le  Clerc  and  carried  to  France,  where  he  died  in 
prison. 

This  outrage  on  the  person  of  their  favorite  chief  exasperated  the 
blacks  to  a  high  degree.  They  flew  to  arms  and  organized  themselves 
under  leaders,  among  whom  Dessalines  and  Christophe  soon  became 
conspicuous.  They  spread  slaughter  and  devastation  among  the 
French,  who  could  offer  little  resistance  against  them  on  account  of  the 
excessive  heat  of  the  summer — 1802.  Le  Clerc  and  most  of  his  officers 
were  attacked  by  sickness,  and  all  the  reinforcements  sent  from  France 
suffered  successively  from  the  pestilence.  Yet  they  continued  to  practice 
great  barbarities  towards  the  unfortunate  blacks.  In  the  midst  of  these 
scenes  of  horror  Le  Clerc  died,  and  the  command  devolved  on  General 
Rochambeau,  who  fought  several  battles  with  varied  success  ;  but  the 
losses  sustained  in  these  actions,  added  to  disease,  reduced  the  French 
to  the  necessity  of  shutting  themselves  up  in  their  strongholds,  while  the 
blacks  were  daily  increasing  in  number  and  confidence.  By  the  end  of 
the  year  1802  no  less  than  40,000  Frenchmen  had  perished. 

Dessalines,  now  commander-in-chief  of  the  negro  army,  advanced 
to  the  plain  of  Cape  Francois,  to  besiege  the  French  in  their  headquar- 
ters. A  bloody  battle  followed,  in  which  neither  could  claim  the  victory. 
The  French  were  said  to  have  tortured  their  prisoners  and  then  put  to 
death  500  of  them.  Dessalines,  hearing  of  this,  caused  500  gibbets  to 
be  erected,  and  after  selecting  all  the  French  officers,  made  up  the  num- 
ber out  of  the  other  prisoners,  and  hung  them  up  at  break  of  day  in 
sight  of  the  French  army.  The  misery  of  the  French  was  completed 
by  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  with  England  in  1803.  A  British  squad- 
ron blockaded  Cape  Francois  ;  the  town  was  reduced  by  famine,  and 
Rochambeau  surrendered  at  the  end  of  the  year. 

BLOODY   INDEPENDENCE. 

On  the  I  St  of  January,  1804,  the  independence  of  the  island  was 
formally  proclaimed,  and  it  resumed  its  aboriginal  name  of  Hayti.  Jean 
Jacques  Dessalines  was  appointed  Governor-General  for  life.  His  first 
act  was  to  encourage  the  return  of  those  blacks  who  had  taken  refuge  in 
the  United  States.     He  next  excited  the  people  to  a  horrible  massacre 


I 

> 

H 
H 

PI 
C 

H 
> 

> 

r 
C 
> 


I806-FULTON-S  FIRST  STEAMBOAT  ON  THE  SEINE,  PARIS 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  57 

of  the  whites,  which  took  place  on  the  2Sth  of  April.  By  a  series  of 
cruelties  and  perfidies  he  got  rid  of  all  whom  he  conceived  to  be  his 
enemies,  and  on  the  8th  of  October,  1804,  procured  a  Capuchin  mission- 
ary to  crown  him  Emperor,  by  the  name  of  Jacques  I.  On  this  occasion 
he  signed  a  constitution  declaring  the  Empire  of  Hayti  to  be  a  free,  sov- 
ereign and  independent  state.  It  proclaimed  the  abolition  of  slavery, 
the  equality  of  rank,  the  equal  operation  of  the  laws,  the  inviolability  of 
property,  etc.  Under  this  government  the  island  rapidly  advanced  to 
prosperity.  Dessalines,  though  a  cruel  and  sanguinary  tyrant,  was  not 
without  skill  in  the  art  of  government.  When  Emperor,  he  appointed 
his  ancient  master  to  the  office  of  butler  to  his  household,  which  he  said 
was  precisely  what  the  old  man  wished  for,  as  his  love  for  wine  made  up 
for  the  abstemiousness  of  Dessalines,  who  drank  only  water. 

KING   HENRY. 

Dessalines  closed  his  bloody  career  on  the  17th  of  October,  1806, 
being  assassinated  by  the  mulatto  soldiers  of  Petion.  At  his  death 
Christophe  was  called  to  the  head  of  the  government,  and  a  constitution 
projected  which  should  guarantee  the  safety  of  persons  and  property. 
A  proclamation  was  issued  denouncing  the  crimes  of  which  Dessalines 
had  been  guilty,  and,  among  other  things,  accused  him  of  having  robbed 
the  public  treasury  of  $20,000  for  each  of  his  twenty  mistresses. 
Christophe,  however,  deplored  the  fate  of  Dessalines,  and  affirmed  that 
he  had  been  put  to  death  by  the  mulattoes  without  inquiry  into  his  con- 
duct. The  blacks,  always  jealous  of  the  mulattoes,  attacked  Petion,  who 
with  his  adherents  escaped  into  the  southern  and  western  districts,  where 
a  new  constitution  was  prepared,  and  on  the  27th  of  December,  1806, 
Petion  was  proclaimed  President  of  the  Republic  of  Hayti.  A  civil  war 
now  sprang  up  between  the  partisans  of  the  two  chiefs,  until  at  leno-th, 
by  a  sort  of  tacit  agreement,  the  mulatto  President  fi.xed  himself  in  the 
south  and  west,  while  Christophe  established  himself  in  the  north,  where, 
on  the  2d  of  June,  181  i,  the  royal  crown  was  placed  on  his  head  and  he 
was  proclaimed  Henry  I,  King  of  Hayti. 

King  Henry  established  his  court  and  government  in  all  the  pomp 
of  a  European  monarchy.  He  maintained  an  army  of  25,000  men. 
He  created  orders  of  nobility,  with  princes,  dukes,  earls,  barons  and 
chevaliers,  knights  of  the  grand  cross,  etc.     He   set   up  a  sort  of  feudal 


58  STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDREn    YEARS. 

system,  partitioning  out  the  vacant  lands  among  his  retainers.  He 
founded  a  royal  college,  established  schools,  endowed  an  academy  for 
music  and  painting,  built  a  theatre,  patronizd  the  arts,  and  encouraged 
macrnificence  in  dress.  He  was  born  a  slave  in  the  island  of  St.  Chris- 
topher's,  from  whence  he  took  his  original  name  ;  yet  his  literary  ac- 
quirements were  respectable,  and  he  spoke  French  and  English  well. 
The   country    prospered    under    his    administration,  and  for    a    time  he 

ruled  in  tranquillity. 

PERUVIAN   REVOLUTION. 

In  Peru  the  movement  against  Spain  soon  began.  As  early  as  1805 
Ubalde,  an  eminent  jurist  of  Cuzco,  excited  the  alarm  of  the  government 
by  his  revolutionary  designs.  He  gained  a  large  party  of  adherents,  but 
before  their  schemes  could  be  put  in  operation,  they  were  betrayed. 
Ubalde  and  eight  others  were  put  to  death  at  Cuzco,  and  more  than  a 
hundred  of  his  party  were  exiled.  The  particulars  of  this  plot  are  not 
distinctly  known,  but  independence  was  the  main  object.  Ubalde  on 
the  scaffold  predicted  that  the  Spanish  dominion  in  South  America  would 
soon  be  overthrown.  It  was  impossible  that  he  could,  at  this  early 
period,  have  foreseen  the  occurrences  in  Spain,  which  shortly  after  paved 
the  way  for  the  emancipation  of  the  Spanish  American  colonies  ;  and 
his  dying  declaration  affords  us  reason  to  believe  that  the  project  of 
throwing  off  the  yoke  of  the  mother  country  had  been  cherished  in  Peru 
to  a  greater  extent  than  has  generally  been  imagined. 

BUENOS  ayre:s. 

The  revolution  in  the  countries  bordering  on  the  Rio  de  la  Plata 
had  its  origin  in  the  war  between  Great  Britain  and  Spain.  A  British 
fleet  and  army,  under  Commodore  Popham  and  General  Beresford, 
which  had  been  despatched  against  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  after  effect- 
ing the  conquest  of  that  colony,  proceeded  to  Buenos  Ayres,  in  1806, 
and  on  the  8th  of  June  arrived  in  the  mouth  of  the  river  La  Plata.  A 
general  consternation  seized  the  inhabitants  of  Buenos  Ayres  when  the 
squadron  appeared  In  sight  of  that  city.  Not  more  than  300  muskets 
could  be  found  for  the  defence  of  the  place,  and  these  the  inhabitants 
had  not  the  skill  to  use.  A  show  of  defence  was  attempted  by  the  vice- 
roy, but  the  only  military  movement  was  made  by  a  single  troop  of  cav- 
alry-, who  undertook  to  harass  the   British  army  of  2000  men,  on  their 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  59 

march  to  Buenos  Ayres.  The  viceroy,  panic-struck,  fled  for  safety  to 
Cordova,  and  the  British  toolc  possession  of  Buenos  Ayres  on  the  28th 
of  June. 

The  Spaniards,  when  the  first  moments  of  panic  were  over,  ap- 
peared to  rouse  as  from  a  dream  or  lethargy,  and  exhibited  a  degree  of 
energy  and  resolution  which  astonished  their  enemies.  Inflamed  with 
indignation  at  the  unmanly  conduct  of  their  leader,  and  chagrined  at  see- 
ing foreigners  in  possession  of  their  capital,  they  began  to  meditate 
upon  the  means  of  driving  them  out  of  the  country.  An  active  and  res- 
olute leader  was  found  in  Liniers,  a  French  officer  in  the  Spanish  service. 
He  exerted  himself  with  great  industry  in  the  districts  north  of  the  river 
in  collecting  and  arming  the  people.  A  secret  correspondence  was  set 
on  foot  between  him  and  certain  persons  within  the  city.  Arms  were 
distributed  and  secreted  in  Buenos  Ayres,  and  a  regular  insurrection  or- 
ganized under  the  guidance  of  Puyrredon,  a  magistrate,  and  a  person  of 
great  talent  and  address. 

DISASTER  TO  THE  BRITISH. 

Liniers  having  collected  a  considerable  force  at  Colonia,  opposite  the 
city,  the  British  attempted  to  drive  him  from  this  post,  but  without  suc- 
cess, and  on  the  ist  of  August  Liniers  crossed  the  river  with  his  whole 
army  and  marched  to  the  attack  of  the  city. 

On  the  morning  of  the  12th  the  combined  attack  began.  The 
British  occupied  the  casde  and  great  square,  and  planted  their  cannon 
towards  the  principal  streets  which  led  to  those  points.  The  Spaniards 
advanced  with  their  artillery  along  the  avenues,  while  the  roofs  of  the 
houses  were  covered  with  musketeers,  who  could  pour  their  fire  upon  all 
below  without  any  hazard  to  themselves.  The  attacking  columns  in  the 
streets  were  repeatedly  checked  in  their  advance,  but  the  fire  from  the 
house-tops  made  dreadful  havoc  and  threatened  the  British  with  utter 
destruction.  The  British  commander  had  now  no  choice  but  to  sur- 
render or  see  his  army  slaughtered  to  the  last  man.  A  capitulation 
was  therefore  proposed,  and  immediately  accepted  ;  the  whole  army 
surrendered  prisoners. 

STORMING  BUENOS  AYRES. 

The  squadron,  however,  continued  in  the  river,  and  being  shortly 
after  reinforced,  made  an  attempt  on  Monte  Video.     This  proving  unsuc- 


6o  STORY    OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

cessful,  they  took  possession  of  Maldonado,  near  the  mouth  of  the  river, 
where  they  found  a  secure  port  for  their  shipping.  Being  strengthened 
by  additional  reinforcements,  the  attaclc  on  Monte  Video  was  repeated  a 
year  afterwards,  and  on  the  3d  of  February,  1807,  after  a  close  siege 
and  great  slaughter,  Monte  Video  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  British.  The 
hostile  temper  of  the  Spaniards  prevented  them  for  some  time  from 
attempting  to  regain  their  lost  footing  at  Buenos  Ayres  ;  but  early  in  the 
summer  they  received  large  reinforcements  of  troops,  and  on  the  25th 
of  June  an  army  of  12,000  men,  u-der  General  Whitelocke,  proceeded 
from  Monte  Video  up  the  river  and  disembarked  about  30  miles  from 
Buenos  Ayres.  They  drove  a  body  of  Spanish  troops  before  them,  and 
on  the  30th  arrived  before  the  city. 

The  British  army  moved  to  the  attack  on  the  5th  of  July.  The 
troops  marched  in  separate  columns,  each  having  its  distinct  point  to  as- 
sail. As  the  columns  entered  the  city  they  were  greeted  with  a  furious 
and  overwhelming  fire  from  the  roofs  and  windows.  At  every  step  they 
encountered  a  fresh  storm  of  shot  and  missiles.  Grapeshot  were  poured 
upon  them  from  every  corner ;  musketry,  hand-grenades,  bricks  and  stones 
rained  from  the  housetops.  Every  dwelling  was  a  fortress,  and  all  its 
tenants  were  indefatig^able  in  its  defence.  For  ten  hours  the  battle  rag-ed 
without  diminishing  the  ardor  and  obstinacy  of  the  combatants  on  either 
side.  Some  of  the  detachments  were  totally  destroyed  by  the  fire  of  the 
citizens.  Others  had  their  retreat  cut  off,  and  were  forced  to  surrender 
in  the  streets.  Others  took  shelter  in  convents  and  churches,  and  after 
terrible  slaughter,  yielded  to  overwhelming  numbers.  Only  two  of  the 
posts  assailed  by  the  British  remained  in  their  hands  at  the  end  of  the 
conflict,  and  after  a  loss  of  2500  men  in  killed,  wounded  and  prisoners. 

Notwithstanding  the  disastrous  issue  of  the  attempt,  the  British 
commander  determined  to  repeat  the  attack  on  the  following  day  ;  but 
he  was  deterred  by  a  communication  from  the  Spanish  commander, 
Liniers,  who  proposed  to  deliver  up  his  prisoners  on  condition  that  the 
British  should  immediately  evacuate  the  country.  Extraordinary  as  this 
proposal  may  seem.  General  Whitelocke  found  himself  compelled  to 
listen  to  it. 

MOVING   FOR   INDEPENDENCE. 

Thus,  at  the  end  of  the  year  the  British  were  completely  expelled 
from  a  territory  over  which  they   imagined  they  had  established  a  firm 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  6 1 

dominion.  Liniers  became  the  popular  idol,  and  was  appointed  Viceroy 
of  the  province.  He  appears  to  have  behaved,  at  first,  with  prudence 
and  moderation,  and  at  the  same  time  with  inflexible  fidelity  to  the  King 
of  Spain.  But  the  most  embarrassing  troubles  soon  arose.  Napoleon 
seized  the  throne  of  Spain,  and  attempted  to  possess  himself  of  her 
colonies.  Two  parties  soon  sprung  up  at  Buenos  Ayres.  The  more  en- 
lightened among  the  native  population,  some  of  whom  had  long  secretly 
cherished  the  desire  of  independence,  felt  a  wish  to  seize  this  oppor- 
tunity to  throw  off  the  Spanish  yoke  forever.  But  those  of  European 
birth,  comprising  almost  all  in  authority,  were  interested  in  the  contin- 
uation of  the  ancient  government,  and  opposed  all  revolutionary  ideas. 
With  the  mass  of  the  inhabitants  any  notion  of  change  was  too  bold. 
Liniers,  in  his  embarrassment,  was  obliged  to  temporize,  and  incurred 
the  suspicion  of  both  parties.  In  July,  iSoS,  a  French  vessel,  with  an 
envoy  from  Napoleon,  arrived  at  Buenos  Ayres  with  dispatches  to 
Liniers,  informing  him  of  the  transfer  of  the  crown  of  Spain,  and  calling 
upon  the  authorities  in  South  America  to  give  their  allegiance  to  the  new 
government.  Liniers,  a  Frenchman  by  birth,  was  not  disinclined  to  this 
step ;  but  convened  the  municipality  and  the  court  of  audience  for  con- 
sultation. This  meeting  were  of  opinion  that  the  extraordinary  occur- 
rences in  Spain  should  be  officially  announced  to  the  people  ;  but  they 
appear  to  have  been  undecided  on  any  step  beyond  this.  Liniers,  aware 
of  the  hostility  of  the  people  toward  the  French,  gave,  in  his  proclama- 
tion but  an  obscure  account  of  the  recent  occurrences,  and  exhorted  the 
inhabitants,  in  the  name  of  Napoleon,  to  remain  quiet  and  use  their  en- 
deavors to  preserve  the  tranquillity  of  the  country. 

CIVIL   DISSENSIONS. 

But  factions  and  dissensions  soon  began  to  throw  the  country  into 
confusion.  Elio,  the  Governor  of  Monte  Video,  formed  a  party  in  oppo- 
sition to  Liniers,  whom  he  accused  of  disloyalty.  The  European  Span- 
iards were  more  numerous  at  Monte  Video  than  at  Buenos  Ayres. 
They  united  with  the  officers  of  the  army  and  navy  and  created  a  junta, 
which  acknowledged  the  dependence  of  the  country  on  the  crown  of 
Spain.  A  serious  attempt  was  made  by  the  same  class  of  persons  in  the 
capital  to  remove  Liniers  from  the  station  of  Viceroy.  They  succeeded 
so  far  as  to  place  him  under  the  necessity  of  resigning  ;  but  this  was  no 


62  ST<JRV    OF    (;NE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

sooner  known  than  the  native  mihtia  took  up  arms  in  his  support,  re- 
stored him  to  authority,  and  banished  his  enemies  to  Patagonia.  Liniers 
now  sent  an  expedition  against  Monte  Video,  where  Eho  had  assumed 
the  title  of  Viceroy  ;  but  while  this  was  in  progress  Don  Josef  de 
Goyeneche  arrived  from  Spain  for  the  purpose  of  mediating  between  the 
two  parties.  He  had  sufficient  influence  to  cause  the  inhabitants  of 
Buenos  Ayres  to  acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  Spain,  and  proclaim 
Ferdinand  VII.  Through  his  exertions  the  people  were  induced  to  rise 
in  all  parts  of  the  city  in  January,  1809,  and  demand  the  establishment 
of  a  provisional  junta.  Liniers,  however,  maintained  his  influence  with 
the  army,  and  by  their  help  was  enabled  to  defeat  this  movement. 

SUCCE^SS  or  THE  REVOLUTION. 

Liniers  did  not  long  enjoy  this  triumph.  In  August,  1809,  Cisneros, 
a  newly-appointed  Viceroy,  arrived  from  Spain,  and  Liniers  was  deposed 
from  office  by  the  junta  which  he  had  overthrown  a  few  months  pre- 
vious. He  was  exiled  to  Cordova  ;  but  the  new  Viceroy  found  it  more 
easy  to  remove  his  predecessor  than  to  establish  himself  in  his  place. 
The  ebullition  of  loyalty  that  had  proclaimed  Ferdinand  was  of  short 
duration.  The  Spanish  Americans  began  to  feel  that  they  had  power  in 
their  hands  ;  and  their  successes  in  defeating  two  British  armies  encour- 
aged them  to  think  they  possessed  valor  also.  Notwithstanding  the  ex- 
ertions that  had  been  made  by  the  court  of  Spain  to  prevent  the  intro- 
duction of  books  and  newspapers  into  the  country,  many  had  been  clan- 
destinely imported  and  eagerly  read,  and  some  intelligence  was  gained 
of  the  events  in  progress  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  The  natives  had 
been  forbidden  to  visit  Europe  or  to  send  their  children  thither  for  in- 
struction ;  yet  some  had  evaded  this  prohibition,  and  returned  with  a 
keen  sense  of  the  wrongs  which  their  country  was  suffering  under  the 
leaden  yoke  of  Spain.  Reform,  innovation  and  independence  began  to 
be  spoken  of  in  confidential  whispers,  and  speedily  became  the  topics  at 
political  meetings.  Commotion  followed  commotion,  and  in  May,  18 10, 
the  Viceroy,  Cisneros,  finding  his  embarrassments  and  perplexities 
alarmingly  increased  by  the  disasters  of  the  Spaniards  in  Europe, 
was  compelled  to  announce  his  inability  to  manage  the  government. 
The  municipality  of  the  city  requested  him  to  call  a  congress,  which  he 
proceeded  to  do.     The  congress   established  a  provisional  junta  for  the 


STORV  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  63 

government  of  the  country,  and  one  of  its  first  acts  was  to  depose  the 
Viceroy  and  send  him  to  Spain.  The  25th  of  May,  when  this  govern- 
ment went  into  action,  has  ever  since  been  observed  as  the  anniversary 
of  Buenos  Ayrean  independence. 

Monte  Video  and  the  interior  provinces  disapproved  of  these  pro- 
ceedings. Liniers  raised  an  army  of  2000  men  and  began  a  civil  war  by 
laying  waste  the  country  around  Cordova,  to  check  the  approach  of  the 
troops  from  the  capital.  General  Nieto  collected  another  force  in  Potosi. 
The  junta  of  Buenos  Ayres  gave  the  command  of  their  army  to  Colonel 
Ocampo,  who  straightway  took  the  field.  On  his  approach  to  Cordova 
the  troops  of  Liniers  abandoned  him,  and  he  was  taken  prisoner  with 
many  of  his  adherents.  Liniers,  Concha,  the  Bishop  of  Cordova,  with 
several  other  persons  of  distinction,  were  condemned  and  executed. 
Thus  fell  the  first  leader  in  this  revolution  by  the  hands  of  the  people 
whom  he  had  assisted  to  tread  the  first  steps  in  the  career  of  their 
emancipation.  The  leaders  at  Buenos  Ayres  feared  his  great  popu- 
larity, and  saw  in  him  a  formidable  obstacle  to  their  designs. 

OTHER  COUNTRIES   REVOLT. 

The  country  was  now,  in  fact,  entirely  separated  from  Spain.  The 
die  was  cast,  and  the  leaders  of  the  revolution  had  no  choice  but  to  ad- 
vance or  be  crushed  by  a  counter-revolution.  They  boldly  asserted  that 
the  sovereignty  of  Spain  over  the  colonies  had  temporarily  ceased  with 
the  captivity  of  the  King,  and  that  each  colony  had  a  right  to  take  care 
of  itself.  The  spirit  of  independence  made  such  rapid  progress  that  in 
the  course  of  the  year  1810  the  whole  viceroyalty,  excepting  the  province 
of  Paraguay  and  the  town  of  Monte  Video,  threw  off  the  authority  of 
the  crown  and  acknowledged  that  of  the  provincial  junta.  They  pro- 
fessed at  the  same  time  an  intention  to  return  to  their  allegiance  to 
Ferdinand  on  his  restoration  to  the  throne  ;  but  this  was  an  event  which 
few  expected  and  fewer  still  desired. 

The  junta,  shortly  after  the  commencement  of  their  administration, 
despatched  a  force  under  Don  A.  Jonte  to  Chili,  to  revolutionize  that 
country.  This  expedition  was  crowned  with  full  success  ;  the  royal  gov- 
ernment was  overthrown,  a  provincial  junta  established,  and  Jonte 
was  continued  in  Chili  as  charge  d'affaires  from  the  government  of  Buenos 
Ayres.     About  the  same  time  Ocampo  was  ordered  to  march  against  the 


64  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

royalists,  who  had  collected  in  considerable  strength  in  Upper  Peru. 
Ocampo  defeated  this  force  and  subjected  a  great  part  of  the  district. 
In  the  meantime  Velasco,  the  governor  af  Paraguay,  had  raised  an  army 
and  menaced  Buenos  Ayres.  Belgrano,  at  the  head  of  a  small  body  of 
Buenos  Ayrean  troops,  marched  against  him,  and  a  battle  was  fought  on 
the  banks  of  the  Tacuari,  where  Belgrano  was  defeated.  Subsequently, 
however,  Velasco  was  deposed  and  a  junta  was  established  in  Paraguay, 
which  formed  an  alliance  with  Buenos  Ayres 

COLOMBIAN    INDEPENDENCE. 

The  movement  for  independence  in  the  northern  part  of  South 
America  began  in  Venezuela  and  Colombia  in  1805,  under  the  lead  of 
General  Miranda,  who  sailed  from  New  York  in  1806  with  a  few  hun- 
dred followers  and  landed  in  Puerto  Cabello.  His  enterprise  was  a  fail- 
ure, but  it  opened  the  way  for  the  later  and  more  successful  work  of 
Bolivar.  The  year  1808  also  saw  the  beginning  of  the  revolution  in 
Mexico. 

SCIENCE  AND   LITERATURE. 

The  first  day  of  the  century,  January  i,  1801,  was  signalized  by  a 
noteworthy  scientific  achievement.  This  was  the  discovery  of  the 
asteroid  Ceres  by  the  astronomer  Piazzi — the  first  of  all  the  asteroids 
to  be  discovered. 

In  1802  "  The  Edinburgh  Review,"  the  first  of  the  famous  quarterly 
reviews,  was  founded.  Its  founders  were  Francis  Jeffrey,  Sidney  Smith, 
Henry  Brougham  and  Francis  Horner,  and  its  publisher  was  Constable. 
It  was  a  success  from  the  first,  and  in  a  few  years  rose  to  the  foremost 
place  in  the  literary  world. 

The  deaths  of  Klopstock,  Alfieri  and  Herder  occurred  in  1803,  and 
the  fact  indicates  the  quality  of  intellect  that  then  prevailed.  Klopstock, 
author  of  "The  Messiah,"  must  always  be  reckoned  among  the 
greatest  of  German  poets,  and  Alfieri  holds  similar  rank  among  Italian 
poets.  Herder,  the  teacher  and  guide  of  Goethe,  is  well  entitled  to  be 
remembered  as  the  founder  of  modern  German  literature.  In  1804 
Immanuel  Kant,  one  of  the  greatest  philosophers  of  any  age,  died. 

AMERICAN   LITERATURE. 

In  these  years  American  literature  may  be  said  to  have  had  its  foun- 
dation.   Washington  Irving  began  his  work  in  the  "  Morning  Chronicle" 


I 

o 

o 

o 

X 


n 

M 

> 

Or 
•^> 
H  ?^ 
X  M 
R    : 

:  O 

"  :c 


C 

C 

H 
C 


r, 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  67 

in  1802,  and  in  1808  published  his  famous  "  Knickerbocker's  History  ol 
New  York."  In  1805  Abie!  Holmes,  father  of  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes, 
published  the  first  two  volumes  of  his  monumental  work,  "American 
Annals." 

At  the  same  time  Sir  Walter  Scott  was  risings  into  notice  in  Great 
Britain.  He  produced  his  "Minstrelsy  of  the  Scottish  Border"  in 
1802.  his  "  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel"  in  1805,  his  "  Tales  of  My  Land- 
lord"  in  1807,  and   "  Marmion  "   in  1808. 

Schiller,  one  of  the  greatest  poets  of  Germany,  died  in  1805,  hav- 
ing produced  his  famous  drama  of  "William  Tell"  in  the  preceding 
year.  The  philosopher  Hegel  ended  his  Jena  lectures  in  1806,  and  in 
1807  published  his  "Phenomenology  of  Spirit." 

The  general  manners  and  customs  of  society  in  these  years  were 
a  curious  mixture  of  ancient  and  modern.  Old  things  were  passing 
away,  yet  had,  not  entirely  vanished,  and  the  fashions  of  the  present 
time    were  only  just  beginning  to  commend  themselves  to   the  world 


CHAPTER  IV. 


M&dison  Becomes  President  of  the  United  States — Trouble  with  the  In- 
dians— The  War  of  I8l2 — American  Disasters — Victories  at  Sea — In- 
vasion of  Canada  —  Battle  of  Lake  Erie  —  British  Success  at 
Sea — Chippewa  and  Lundy's  Lane — Lake  Champladn — 
Burning  of  Washington— Talking  of  Peace — Battle 
of  New  Orleans — Hartford  Convention— The 
Creek  War — Close  of  Mr,   Madison's 
Administration. 


IN  1809,  Mr.  Jefferson,  having  declined  a  re-election,  was  succeeded 
as  President  of  the  United  States  by  James  Madison,  who  had  held 
the  office  ot  Secretary  of  State  in  the  late  administration,  and  who 
pursued  the  same  general  policy.  At  the  commencement  of  the  new 
administration  an  arrangement  was  made  with  Mr.  Erskine,  the  British 
minister,  by  which  the  American  government  was  induced  to  renew  the 
trade  with  England  ;  but  this  arrangement  was  afterwards  disavowed  on 
the  part  of  Great  Britain.  The  succeeding  negotiator,  Mr.  Jackson, 
having,  soon  after  his  arrival,  used  offensive  language,  the  President  de- 
clined having  any  further  correspondence  with  him.  An  unhappy  ren- 
counter between  the  American  and  English  ships  of  war,  the  "President" 
and  the  "Little  Belt,"  served  to  increase  the  unfriendly  sentiments  of 
the  two  countries. 

TROUBLE   WITH   THE    INDIANS. 

The  first  war  of  the  Administration  was,  however,  not  foreign  but 
domestic.  Ohio  had  been  admitted  as  a  State.  Illinois  was  now 
erected  into  a  territor)^  And  the  Indians  occupying  those  regions  were 
consequently  disturbed,  and  were,  so  far  as  possible,  induced  to  settle  in 
Indiana,  over  which  Territory  General  William  Henry  Harrison  was  gov- 
ernor. In  September,  1809,  General  Harrison  negotiated  a  treaty  with 
the  Miami  Indians,  by  which  they  sold  to  the  United  States  a  large  tract 
of  country  along  the  Wabash  River.  This  aroused  much  dissatisfaction 
among  the  warlike  members  of  the  tribe,  with  the  result  that  the  bulk 

68 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  69 

of  the  tribe  was  soon  persuaded  to  go  upon  the  warpath.  The  hostili- 
ties culminated  in  the  battle  of  Tippecanoe,  which  was  fought  on  No- 
vember 7,  181 1,  the  American  forces  being  led  by  General  Harrison  in 
person.  More  than  three  thousand  Indians  were  engaged,  and  they 
were  completely  routed. 

Other  incidents  of  the  early  part  of  Mr.  Madison's  administration 
were  the  admission  of  Louisiana  as  a  State,  the  creation  of  the  Terri- 
tory of  Missouri,  and  a  dreadful  theatre  fire  at  Richmond,  Virginia,  in 
which  many  lives  were  lost. 

THE  WAR  OF   1812. 

The  prospect  of  an  amicable  adjustment  of  existing  difficulties  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  continuing  to  become  daily 
more  dark  and  unpromising.  Congress  met,  pursuant  to  adjournment, 
on  the  25th  of  May,  1812  ;  and  on  the  ist  of  June  the  President  sent  a 
message  to  that  body,  strongly  recommending  a  declaration  of  war.  The 
principal  grounds  for  it,  as  stated  in  the  message,  were  the  impressment 
of  .American  seamen  by  the  British  ;  the  blockading  of  the  ports  by  their 
enemies  ;  the  orders  in  Council  ;  and  a  suspicion  that  the  Indians  had 
been  instigated  to  acts  ot  hostility  by  British  agents. 

The  bill  for  declaring  war  passed  the  House  of  Representatives  by 
a  vote  of  79  to  49,  and  the  Senate,  by  one  of  19  to  13  ;  and  on  the  iSth 
of  June,  the  day  after  it  passed  the  Senate,  it  was  signed  by  the  Presi- 
dent. Five  days  after  the  declaration  of  war  the  British  orders  in  Coun- 
cil were  repealed  in  consequence  of  the  decrees  of  Berlin  and  Milan 
having  been  revoked. 

The  minority  of  Congress  opposed  the  declaration  of  war  on  the 
ground  of  its  being,  in  their  view,  unnecessary  and  impolitic  ;  they  main- 
tained, also,  that  the  aggressions  of  the  French  had  been  greater  than 
those  of  the  English  ;  and  they  entered  a  solemn  protest  against  the 
measure.  A  considerable  proportion  of  the  people  of  the  United  States 
sympathized,  in  their  views,  with  this  minority  ;  and  the  war  was,  conse- 
quently, prosecuted  with  much  less  energy  and  success  than  it  might 
otherwise  have  been. 

AMERICAN   DISASTERS. 

Notwithstandmg  the  length  of  time  during  which  hostilities  had 
been  meditated,  they  were  commenced  in  a  very  imperfect  state  of  pre- 
paration on  the  part  of  the  American  government ;  and  in  consequence, 


yo  STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

the  operations  of  the  American  armies  by  land  during  the  first  year  were 
wholly  unsuccessful  and  disastrous.  Fort  Dearborn,  near  the  site  of 
Chicago,  and  the  rising  town  of  Detroit,  had  speedily  to  be  surrendered 
to  British  invaders  from  Canada.  On  the  12th  of  July,  1812,  General 
Hull,  with  an  army  of  upwards  of  2000  men,  invaded  Canada;  and,  on 
the  1 6th  of  August,  he  surrendered,  with  the  whole  of  his  troops,  to  the 
British.  A  second  attempt  to  invade  the  province  was  made  by  General 
Van  Rensselaer  who,  with  about  1000  men,  crossed  the  Niagara  in  No- 
vember and  attacked  the  British  at  Oueenstown  ;  after  an  obstinate  en- 
gagement he  was  obliged  to  surrender  with  his  army.  In  this  engage- 
ment the  British  commander.  General  Brock,  was  killed. 

VICTORIES  AT  SEA. 

While  the  operations  of  the  troops  of  the  United  States  in  Canada 
were  so  extremely  unfortunate  and  mortifying,  brilliant  success  attended 
the  American  flaof  on  the  ocean.  In  August  the  frigate  "  Constitution," 
or  "Old  Ironsides,"  commanded  by  Captain  Hull,  captured  the  British 
frigate,  the  "  Guerriere."  In  October,  the  frigate  "  United  States,"  com- 
manded by  Captain  Decatur,  took  the  British  frigate,  the  "  Macedonian." 
In  November,  the  British  sloop,  the  "  Frolic,"  was  captured  by  the  sloop 
"  Wasp,"  under  Captain  Jones  ;  but  the  'Wasp  "  was  immediately  after 
taken  by  the  "  Poictiers,"  a  British  seventy-four.  In  December  the 
'Constitution,"  commanded  by  Captain  Bainbridge,  captured  the  British 
frigate,  the  "Java."  In  these  four  engageinents  the  total  loss  of  the 
British  in  killed  and  wounded  was  423  ;  that  of  the  Americans,  only  jt,. 

The  operations  of  the  war  during  181 3  were  productive  of  alternate 
successes  and'  reverses.  In  January  a  detachment  of  about  800  men 
under  General  Winchester  was  surprised  and  defeated  by  the  British 
and  Indians  under  General  Proctor,  at  Frenchtown,  on  the  river  Raisin. 
Those  who  had  not  fallen,  amounting  to  about  500,  surrendered  prison- 
ers,  a  great  part  of  whom   were  inhumanly  massacred  by  the  Indians. 

INVASION   OF  CANADA. 

In  April  a  detachment  of  1700  American  troops,  under  General 
Pike,  after  some  severe  fighting,  took  possession  of  York,  in  Upper 
Canada,  and  destroyed  a  large  quantity  of  public  stores.  By  the  explo- 
sion of  a  mine,  prepared  for  the  purpose.  General  Pike,  together  with 
about  100  Americans,  were  killed.     The  British  lost  about  700  in  killed 


< 

•J 
< 

o 

K 

H 
H 
< 

CO 

w 
X 
H 

H 
< 

y. 

o 
u 

o 

D, 
< 

z 

I 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  73 

wounded  and  captured.  Colonel  Dudley,  being  detached  from  Fort 
Meigs  with  800  men  to  attack  the  enemy's  battery,  was  surrounded 
by  a  large  army  of  Indians,  under  Tecumseh,  and  was  defeated,  with  the 
loss  of  most  of  his  troops. 

In  May  an  attack  was  made  upon  Sackett's  Harbor  by  about  1000 
British  troops,  under  Sir  George  Prevost,  who  was  repulsed  with  consid- 
erable loss  by  the  Americans  under  General  Brown.  Two  days  before 
this  event  Fort  George,  in  Canada,  was  taken  by  the  Americans  under 
General  Boyd  and  Colonel  Miller.  The  British,  who  were  commanded 
by  General  Vincent,  lost  nearly  1000  in  killed,  wounded  and  captured. 
A  few  days  afterwards  Generals  Chandler  and  Windier,  who  had  ad- 
vanced with  a  considerable  force,  were  surprised  in  the  night,  not  far 
from  the  fort,  by  the  British  under  General  Vincent,  and  were  both 
taken  prisoners. 

BATTLE  OF  LAKE   ERIE. 

The  most  brilliant  achievement  during  this  year  was  the  defeat  of 
the  British  naval  force  on  Lake  Erie  in  September  by  Commodore 
Perry.  The  British  fleet  consisted  of  six  vessels,  having  63  guns  ;  that 
of  the  Americans,  of  nine  vessels,  with  56  guns.  The  conflict,  which 
lasted  three  hours,  was  tremendous  ;  but  the  victory  was  complete.  The 
British  force  being  reduced  to  almost  a  total  wreck  fell  entirely  into  the 
hands  of  the  Americans,  who  were,  by  this  achievement,  rendered  mas- 
ters of  the  lake. 

After  this  victory  General  Harrison  embarked  his  main  army  on 
board  the  American  squadron,  landed  on  the  Canadian  shore,  and  in 
October,  near  the  Thames,  defeated  and  dispersed  the  British  army 
under  General  Proctor.  In  this  action  the  enemy  sustained  a  severe 
loss,  and  the  celebrated  Indian  chief  Tecumseh,  was  killed.  But  the 
Americans  were  afterwards  repulsed  at  Williamsburg. 

BRITISH  SUCCESS  AT  SEA. 

Great  preparations  had  been  made  for  the  conquest  of  Canada, 
under  Generals  Wilkinson  and  Hampton,  but  nothing  of  importance  was 
effected  ;  and  a  disagreement  between  the  two  generals  prevented  that 
concert  which  was  necessary  to  insure  success.  The  village  Newark, 
in  Canada,  being  burnt  by  the  Americans,  the  British  crossed  over,  and, 
in  retaliation,  burnt  Buffalo,  which  was  then   a  small   town,  and  some 


74  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

Other  villages.  During  this  year,  the  British,  under  Admiral  Cockburn, 
committed  various  depredations  in  the  south,  and  on  the  shores  of  the 
Chesapeake  ;  but  they  were  repulsed  at  Craney  Island,  near  Norfolk. 

The  English  were  more  successful  on  the  ocean  during  this  year 
than  during  the  preceding.  The  American  flag,  however,  was  not,  in 
any  instance,  disgraced  ;  nor  were  the  American  ships  and  men  found 
inferior  to  those  of  Britain  of  equal  force.  In  February,  the  "  Hornet," 
commanded  by  Captain  Lawrence,  captured  the  British  sloop  the  "Pea- 
cock." In  June,  the  "Chesapeake,"  under  Captain  Lawrence,  was  cap- 
tured by  the  "Shannon,"  commanded  by  Captain  Broke.  In  August, 
the  "Argus"  was  captured  by  the  English  sloop  the  "Pelican"  ;  and  in 
September,  the  British  brig  the  "Boxer"  surrendered  to  the  "Enter- 
prise." 

CHIPPEWA   AND   LUNDY'S  LANE. 

The  campaign  of  1814  was  distinguished  by  more  severe  fighting  in 
Canada  than  had  before  occurred.  On  the  second  day  of  July  the 
Americans,  under  General  Brown,  having  taken  Fort  Erie,  proceeded  to 
attack  the  British  under  General  Drummond  at  Chippewa,  where  on  the 
5th  an  obstinate  engagement  took  place  which  terminated  in  favor  of 
the  Americans.  On  the  25th  of  the  month  a  more  sanguinary  and 
warmly  contested  battle  was  fought  at  Bridgewater,  or  Lundy's  Lane,  by 
the  Americans  under  Generals  Brown  and  Scott,  and  the  British  under 
Generals  Drummond  and  Riall.  The  British  were  forced  to  retreat, 
with  the  loss  of  about  900  in  killed,  wounded  and  taken.  The  American 
army  was  also  so  much  weakened  that  it  fell  back  to  Fort  Erie,  which 
the  British  afterwards  attempted  to  storm  ;  but  they  were  repulsed  with 
a  severe  loss.  This  was  the  last  important  operation  of  the  war  on 
this  frontier. 

LAKE   CHAMPLAIN. 

Sir  George  Prevost,  having  received  large  reinforcements  from  the 
troops  which  had  been  employed  under  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  in 
Spain,  now  advanced  with  an  army  of  14,000  men,  to  carr}'  offensive  war 
into  the  United  States  ;  and  his  first  attempt  was  on  Plattsburg.  The 
operations  of  this  army  were  accompanied  by  those  of  the  British  naval 
force  on  Lake  Champlain,  consisting  of  95  guns  and  1050  men,  com- 
manded by  Commodore  Downie.  This  force  was  totally  defeated  by  the 
American  fleet,  having  86  guns  and  826  men,   under  the  command  of 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  75 

Commodore  Macdonough.  During  the  engagement  between  the  fleets 
Sir  George  Prevost  attacked  the  forts  of  Plattsburg,  but  was  effectually 
repulsed  by  the  Americans  under  General  Macomb.  The  loss  of  British 
in  killed,  wounded  and  deserters  was  estimated  at  2500  ;  while  that  of 
the  Americans,  both  on  the  land  and  water,  was  only  231. 

BURNING   OF    WASHINGTON. 

In  August,  a  British  fleet  of  about  60  sail  arrived  in  the  Chesapeake, 
and  an  army  of  about  5000  men,  under  General  Ross,  landed  in  the 
Patuxent,  about  forty  miles  from  the  city  of  Washington.  Having  easily 
put  to  flight  the  American  militia  under  General  Winder,  of  Bladens- 
burg,  the  enemy  entered  Washington,  burnt  the  capitol,  the  President's 
house  and  other  public  buildings,  and  retired  without  molestation.  In 
September,  about  a  fortnight  after  this  transaction,  the  British  army,  to 
the  number  of  about  7000,  under  General  Ross  and  Admiral  Cockburn, 
made  a  similar  attempt  on  Baltimore,  but  after  gaining  some  advantages, 
they  were  finally  repulsed.  In  this  attempt  General  Ross  was  killed. 
During  the  British  attack  upon  Fort  McHenry,  at  Baltimore,  the 
national  anthem,  "The  Star  Spangled  Banner,"  was  written  by  Francis 
Scott  Key. 

On  the  ocean,  the  American  flag  maintained  its  reputation,  and  in 
no  instance  yielded  to  an  inferior  or  equal  force.  The  American  frigate 
the  "Essex,"  however,  was  captured  by  the  British  frigate  the  "Phoebe" 
and  the  sloop  "  Cherub"  of  a  superior  force,  and  the  frigate  "President" 
by  a  squadron  of  the  enemy ;  but  the  British  vessels  of  war,  the  "  Eper- 
vier,"  "Avon,"  "Reindeer,"  "  Cyane,"  "Levant"  and  "Penguin,"  were 
taken  by  the  Americans. 

TALKING   OF  PEACE. 

As  the  war  between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  was  a 
branch  of  the  great  European  quarrel,  it  naturally  fell  to  the  ground 
when  that  quarrel  ceased.  The  matters  in  dispute  between  the  two 
countries  related  to  maritime  and  neutral  rights  ;  but,  with  regard  to 
these  subjects,  there  was  no  longer  any  cause  of  difference,  as  the  world 
was  at  peace.  On  the  restoration  of  peace  in  Europe,  both  parties 
began  to  think  seriously  about  ending  the  war,  and  the  Emperor  of 
Russia  offered  his  services  as  mediator,  which  were,  however,  declined 
by  the  British  government,  and  a  direct  negotiation  at  London  or  Gotten- 


j6  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

burg  was  proposed.  In  April,  1813,  commissioners,  on  the  part  of  the 
United  States,  were  appointed  to  meet  others  from  England  at  Gotten- 
burg  ;  but  the  place  of  meeting  was  afterwards  changed  to  Ghent,  where 
1  treaty  was  finally  signed  on  the  24th  of  December,  18 14. 

BATTLE   OF   NEW   ORLEANS. 

While  the  negotiation  was  in  progress,  a  large  armament,  under  the 
command  of  Sir  Edward  Packenham,  was  fitted  out  by  Great  Britain  for 
an  attack  on  New  Orleans,  with  the  intention,  apparently,  of  ending  the 
war  with  some  eclat,  but  the  design  met  with  a  most  signal  and  fatal 
defeat.  The  British,  after  enduring  great  fatigues  and  numerous  diffi- 
culties, and  sustaining  some  desperate  encounters,  assaulted  the  works 
thrown  up  for  the  defence  of  the  city,  on  the  8th  of  January,  1815,  when 
they  were  dreadfully  cut  to  pieces  and  repulsed  by  the  Americans  under 
General  Jackson.  The  loss  of  the  enemy  in  killed,  wounded  and  cap- 
tured amounted  to  about  2600  ;  among  the  slain  were  the  commander- 
in-chief.  General  Packenham,  and  other  principal  officers.  The  loss  of 
the  Americans  was  only  7  killed  and  6  wounded.  This  was  the  last 
important  operation  of  the  war. 

HARTFORD    CONVENTION. 

In  18 14,  the  North-eastern  States  were  in  a  very  exposed  condition, 
being  destitute  of  protection  from  the  national  troops,  and  great  alarm 
was  excited  among  the  people.  At  this  juncture,  the  legislature  of 
Massachusetts  proposed  a  conference,  by  delegates  from  the  legislatures 
of  the  New  England  States  and  of  any  of  the  other  States  that  might 
accede  to  the  measure,  in  order  to  devise  and  recommend  to  these  States 
measures  for  their  security  and  defence.  A  convention,  composed  of 
distinguished  men,  delegates  from  the  New  England  States,  accord- 
ingly met  at  Hartford,  in  Connecticut,  on  the  15th  of  December, 
and  after  a  session  of  three  weeks,  they  published  the  result  of  their 
deliberations. 

The  commissioners  of  the  convention,  who  were  sent  to  confer 
with  the  national  government  and  the  treaty  of  peace  with  Great 
Britain,  arrived  at  Washington  about  the  same  time,  so  that  the 
war  and  all  proceedings  relating  to  its  continuance  were,  at  length, 
happily  terminated. 


STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS.  "J"] 

THE  CREEK  WAR. 

While  the  war  with  Great  Britain  was  in  prog-ress,  in  the  fall  of 
1812,  a  sanguinary  war  was  waged  by  the  Creeks  and  Seminoles, 
against  the  frontier  inhabitants  of  Georgia.  At  the  head  of  2500 
volunteers  from  Tennessee,  General  Jackson  marched  into  their  country, 
and  compelled  them  to  desist ;  but,  soon  after  his  return,  their  ani- 
mosity burst  forth  with  increased  and  fatal  violence.  Dreading  their 
cruelty,  some  300  men,  women,  and  children,  took  refuge  in  Fort 
Mimms.  Here,  at  noon-day,  on  the  30th  of  August,  they  were  sur- 
prised by  a  party  of  600  Indians,  who,  from  the  fort,  drove  the  people 
into  the  houses  which  it  inclosed.  To  these  they  set  fire.  Seventeen 
only  of  the  refugees  escaped  to  carry  the  horrid  tidings  to  the  neigh- 
boring stations.  But  the  whites  resolved  on  vengeance.  General 
Jackson,  at  the  head  of  3500  militia  of  Tennessee,  again  took  up  his 
march  into  the  southern  wilderness.  A  detachment,  under  General 
Coffee,  encountering  at  Tallushatchie  a  body  of  Indians,  a  sanguinary 
conflict  ensued.  The  latter  fought  with  desperation,  neither  giving  nor 
receiving  quarter,  until  nearly  every  warrior  had  perished.  Yet  still,  the 
spirit  of  the  Creeks  remained  unsubdued.  With  no  little  sagacity  and 
skill,  they  selected  and  fortified  another  position  on  the  Tallapoosa, 
called  by  themselves  the  Tohopeka,  and  by  whites  the  Horse-shoe 
Bend.  Here  nearly  a  thousand  warriors,  animated  with  a  fierce  and 
determined  resolution,  were  collected.  3000  men,  commanded  by  Gen- 
eral Jackson,  marched  to  attack  this  post.  To  prevent  escape,  a  de- 
tachment under  General  Coffee  encircled  the  Bend.  The  main  body 
advanced  to  the  fortress,  and  for  a  few  minutes  the  opposing  forces 
were  engaged  muzzle  to  muzzle  at  the  portholes  ;  but  at  length,  the 
troops  leaping  over  the  walls,  mingled  in  furious  combat  with  the  sav- 
ages. When  the  Indians,  fleeing  to  the  river,  beheld  the  troops  on  the 
opposite  bank,  they  returned,  and  fought  with  increasing  fury  and 
desperation.  600  warriors  were  killed;  four  only  yielded  themselves 
prisoners  ;  the  remaining  300  escaped.  Of  the  whites,  55  were  killed 
and  146  wounded. 

It  was  deemed  probable  that  further  resistance  would  be  made 
by  the  Indians  at  a  place  called  the  Hickory-ground;  but,  on  General 
Jackson's  arriving  thither  in  April,  18 14,  the  principal  chiefs  came  out 
to  meet  him,  and  peace  was  made. 


78  STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

CLOSE  or  MR.  MADISON'S  ADMINISTRATION. 

The  remainder  of  Mr.  Madison's  administration  was  marked  by  few 
events  or  measures  of  national  importance.  Yet,  we  may  briefly  notice 
the  conclusion  of  a  treaty,  conducted  at  Algiers,  with  the  day  of  Algiers, 
with  William  Shaler  and  Commodore  Stephen  Decatur,  on  the  30th  of 
June,  1 81 5 — a  "convention  by  which  to  regulate  the  commerce  between 
the  territories  of  the  United  States  and  of  His  Britannic  Majesty,"  con- 
cluded at  London,  July  3 — and  the  incorporation  of  a  national  bank,  with 
a  capital  of  thirty-five  million  dollars.  Indiana  was  admitted  to  the 
Union  as  a  State,  and  Alabama  was  erected  into  a  Territory. 

In  the  fall .  of  181 2,  Mr.  Madison  was  re-elected  President  for  a 
second  term,  and  Elbridge  Gerry,  of  Massachusetts,  was  elected  Vice- 
President.  In  the  fall  of  1816,  Mr.  Madison  made  it  known  that  he 
would  follow  Jefferson's  example,  and  retire  from  office  at  the  end  of 
his  second  term.  Accordingly,  James  Monroe,  of  Virginia,  was  chosen 
President  in  his  place,  and  Daniel  D.  Tompkins,  of  New  York,  was 
chosen  Vice-President. 


CHAPTER  V. 


Austria  against  Napoleon — Napoleon's  Divorce  and  Re-marriage — Welling- 
ton at  Torres  Vedras — Turn  of  the  Tide  in  Spain — Quarrel  with  Russi& 
— Marching    to    Moscow — Borodino — Destruction    of    Moscow — 
Horrors  of  the  Retreat — Destruction  of  the  Grand  Army — 
Lutzen  and  Leipsic — Invasion  of  France — Napoleon's 
Return  from  Elba — Waterloo — Restoration  of  the 
Bourbons — The    Second    Peace    of    Peuris. 


A  SHORT  time  before  the  battle  of  Corunna,  Napoleon  received 
dispatches  which  induced  him  to  return  immediately  to  Paris. 
The  Austrian  Emperor,  humbled  but  not  subdued,  and  stimulated 
by  the  warlike  spirit  of  his  subjects,  once  more  resolved  to  try 
the  hazards  of  war,  while  the  best  troops  of  Napoleon  were  occupied  in 
the  Spanish  Peninsula.  On  the  8th  of  April,  1809,  large  bodies  of  Aus- 
trian troops  crossed  the  frontiers  of  Bohemia,  of  the  Tyrol,  and  of  Italy, 
and  soon  involved  in  great  danger  the  dispersed  divisions  of  Napoleon's 
army.  On  the  17th  of  the  same  month  Napoleon  arrived  and  took  the 
command  in  person.  Baffling  the  Austrian  generals  by  the  rapidity  of 
his  movements,  he  speedily  concentrated  his  divisions,  and  in  four  days 
of  combats  and  manoeuvres,  from  the  19th  to  the  22d  inclusive,  he  com- 
pleted the  ruin  of  the  Austrian  army.  On  the  last  of  these  days  he  de- 
feated the  Archduke  Charles  at  Eckmuhl,  and  compelled  him  to  recross 
the  Danube.  Rapidly  following  up  his  victories,  he  entered  Vienna  on 
the  13th  of  May,  and  although  worsted  in  the  battle  of  Aspern  on  the 
2 1  St  and  2  2d,  on  the  5th  of  July  he  gained  a  triumph  at  Wagram,  and 
soon  after  dictated  a  peace  by  which  Austria  was  compelled  to  surrender 
territory  containing  3,500,000  inhabitants. 

During  the  war  with  Austria  the  brave  Tyrolese  had  seized  the 
opportunity  to  raise  the  standard  of  revolt ;  and  it  was  not  until  two 
powerful  French  armies  had  been  sent  into  their  country  that  they  were 
subdued.  The  British  government  also  sent  a  fleet  and  an  army  of 
40,000  men  to  make  a  diversion  against  Napoleon  on  the  coast  of  Hol- 
land ;   but  the  expedition  proved  a  failure. 

70 


3o  STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

NAPOLEON'S    DIVORCE   AND   RE:-MARRIAGE. 

Near  the  close  of  1809  the  announcement  was  made  that  Napoleon 
was  about  to  obtain  a  divorce  from  the  Empress  Josephine  for  the  pur- 
pose of  allying  himself  with  one  of  the  royal  families  of  Europe.  To 
Josephine  Napoleon  was  warmly  attached  ;  but  reasons  of  state  policy 
were,  in  his  breast,  superior  to  the  dearest  affections.  His  first  marriage 
having  been  annulled  by  the  French  Senate,  early  in  18 10  he  received 
the  hand  of  Maria  Louisa  of  Austria,  daughter  of  the  Emperor  Francis. 
This  marriage,  which  seemed  permanently  to  establish  Napoleon's 
power,  by  uniting  the  lustre  of  descent  with  the  grandeur  of  his  throne, 
was  one  of  the  principal  causes  of  his  final  ruin,  as  it  was  justly  feared 
by  the  other  European  powers  that,  secured  by  the  Austrian  alliance,  he 
would  strive  to  make  himself  master  of  Europe.  His  conduct  towards 
Holland  justified  this  suspicion.  Dissatisfied  with  his  brother's  govern- 
ment of  that  country,  he  soon  after,  by  an  imperial  decree,  incorporated 
Holland  with  the  French  Empire.  In  the  same  year  Bernadotte,  one  of 
his  generals,  was  advanced  to  the  throne  of  Sweden.  Napoleon  con- 
tinued his  career  of  aggrandizement  in  the  central  parts  of  Europe,  and 
extended  the  French  limits  almost  to  the  frontiers  of  Russia,  thereby  ex- 
citing the  strongest  jealousy  of  the  Russian  Emperor,  who  renewed  his 
intercourse  with  the  court  of  London,  and  began  to  prepare  for  that  tre- 
mendous conflict  with  France,  which  he  saw  approaching. 

WELLINGTON  AT  TORRE^S  VEDRAS. 

The  war  still  continued  in  the  Spanish  Peninsula.  Sir  Arthur 
Wellesley,  who  had  recently  been  created  Lord  Welhngton,  had  the 
chief  command  of  the  English,  .Spanish  and  Portuguese  forces.  On  the 
lOth  of  July  the  Spanish  fortress  of  Ciudad  Rodrigo  surrendered  to  Mar- 
shal Massena,  but  on  the  27th  of  September  Massena  was  defeated  in  an 
attack  upon  Wellington  on  the  heights  of  Busaco.  Wellington,  still  pur- 
suing his  plan  of  defensive  operations,  then  retired  to  the  strongly  for- 
tified lines  of  Torres  Vedras,  which  defended  the  approaches  to  Lisbon. 
Massena  followed,  but  in  vain  endeavored  to  find  a  weak  spot  where  he 
could  attack  with  any  prospect  of  success,  and  after  continuing  before 
the  lines  more  than  a  month,  he  broke  up  his  position  on  the  14th  of 
November,  and  for  the  first  time  since  the  accession  of  Napoleon,  the 
French  eagles  commenced  a  final  retreat. 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  8 1 

The  early  part  of  1811  witnessed  the  siege  of  Badajoz  by  Marshal 
Soult,  and  its  surrender  to  the  French  on  the  loth  of  March  ;  but  this 
was  soon  followed  by  the  battle  of  Albuera,  in  which  the  united  British 
and  Spanish  forces  gained  an  important  victory.  Many  battles  were 
fought  during  the  remainder  of  the  year,  but  they  were  attended  with  no 
important   results   on   either  side. 

TURN  OF  THE  TIDE   IN  SPAIN. 

The  year  181 2  opened  with  the  surrender  of  the  important  city  of 
Valencia  to  Marshal  Suchet  on  the  9th  of  January,  the  last  of  a  long 
series  of  French  triumphs  in  the  peninsula.  On  the  same  day  Welling- 
ton, in  another  quarter,  laid  siege  to  Ciudad  Rodrigo  ;  and  the  capture 
of  this  place  by  the  British  arms  was  soon  followed  by  that  of  Badajoz. 
Wellington,  following  up  his  successes,  next  defeated  Marmont  in  the 
battle  of  Salamanca  ;  the  intrusive  King  Joseph  fled  from  Madrid,  and 
on  the  next  day  the  capital  of  Spain  was  in  the  possession  of  the  British 
army.  The  concentration  of  the  French  forces  again  compelled  the  cau- 
tious Wellington  to  retreat  to  Portugal  ;  but  early  in  the  following  year, 
1813,  he  resumed  the  offensive,  gained  the  decisive  battle  of  Vittoria, 
and  before  the  close  of  the  campaign,  drove  the  French  across  the  Pyre- 
nees into  their  own  territories. 

QUARREL  WITH    RUSSIA. 

During  these  reverses  to  the  French  arms,  events  of  greater  mag- 
nitude than  those  of  the  Peninsular  war  were  occupying  the  personal  at- 
tention of  Napoleon.  The  jealousy  of  Russia  at  his  repeated  encroach- 
ments in  Central  and  Northern  Europe  has  already  been  mentioned  ; 
moreover,  the  commercial  interests  of  Russia,  in  common  with  those  of 
the  other  Northern  powers,  had  been  greatly  injured  by  the  measures  of 
Napoleon  for  destroying  the  trade  of  England  :  but  the  French  Em- 
peror refused  to  abandon  his  favorite  policy,  and  the  angry  discussions 
between  the  Cabinets  of  St.  Petersburg  and  Versailles  led  to  the  assem- 
bling of  vast  armies  on  both  sides,  and  the  commencement  of  hostilities 
in  the  early  part  of  the  summer  of  181 2.  Napoleon  had  driven  Sweden 
to  enter  into  an  alliance  with  Russia  and  England;  but  he  arrayed  around 
his  standard  the  immense  forces  of  France,  Italy,  Germany,  the  Confedera- 
tion of  the  Rhine,  Poland,  and  the  two  monarchies,  Prussia  and  Austria. 


82  STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

The  "Grand  Army"  assembled  in  Poland  for  the  Russian  war 
amounted  to  the  immense  aggregate  of  more  than  500,000  men,  of 
whom  80,000  were  cavalry,  the  whole  being  supported  by  1300  pieces 
of  cannon.  Nearly  20,000  chariots  or  carts,  of  all  descriptions,  followed 
the  army,  while  the  whole  number  of  horses  amounted  to  187,000.  To 
oppose  this  vast  army  the  Russians  had  collected  at  the  beginning  of  the 
contest  nearly  300,000  men  ;  but  as  the  war  was  carried  into  the  interior 
their  forces  increased  in  numbers  until  the  armies  on  both  sides  were 
nearly  equal. 

MARCHING  TO   MOSCOW. 

On  the  24th  of  June,  181 2,  Napoleon  crossed  the  Niemenatthe  head 
of  the  "  Grand  Army,"  and  entered  upon  his  ever  memorable  Russian 
campaign.  As  the  enormous  superiorty  of  his  forces  rendered  it  hope- 
less lor  the  Russians  to  attempt  any  immediate  resistance,  they  grad- 
ually fell  back  before  the  invaders,  wasting  the  country  as  they  re- 
treated. The  wisdom  of  this  course  soon  became  apparent.  A  terri- 
ble tempest  soon  set  in,  and  the  horses  in  the  French  army  perished 
by  thousands  from  the  combined  effects  of  incessant  rain  and  scanty 
forage  ;  the  soldiers  sickened  in  great  numbers,  and  before  a  single 
shot  had  been  fired  25,000  sick  and  dying  men  filled  the  hospitals; 
10,000  dead  horses  strewed  the  road  to  Wilna,  and  120  pieces  of 
cannon  were  abandoned  for  want  of  the  means  of  transport. 

Still  Napoleon  pressed  onward  in  several  divisions,  frequently 
skirmishing  with  the  enemy,  and  driving  them  before  him,  until  he 
arrived  under  the  fortified  walls  of  Smolensko,  where  30,000  Russians 
made  a  stand  to  oppose  him.  A  hundred  and  fifty  cannon  were  brought 
up  to  batter  the  walls,  but  without  effect,  for  the  thickness  of  the  ram- 
parts defied  the  efforts  of  the  artillery.  But  the  French  howitzers  set 
fire  to  some  houses  near  the  ramparts  ;  the  flames  spread  with  won- 
derful rapidity,  and  during  the  night  which  followed  the  battle,  a  lurid 
light  from  the  burning  city  was  cast  over  the  French  bivouacs,  grouped 
in  dense  masses  for  several  miles  in  circumference.  At  3  o'clock  in 
the  morning  a  solitary  French  soldier  scaled  the  walls  and  penetrated 
into  the  interior;  but  he  found  neither  inhabitants  nor  opponents.  Deso- 
lation had  been  completed  by  the  voluntary  sacrifice  of  the  inhabitants, 
who  had  withdrawn  with  the  army,  leaving  a  ruined  city,  naked  walls,  and 
the  cannon  which  mounted  them,  as  the  only  trophy  to  the  conqueror. 


STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED   YEARS.  83 

BORODINO. 

The  division  of  the  army  led  by  Napoleon  followed  the  Russians  on 
the  road  to  Moscow,  engaging  in  frequent  but  indecisive  encounters  with 
the  rear  guard.  When  the  retreating  forces  had  reached  the  small  village 
of  Borodino,  their  commander,  General  Kutusoff,  resolved  to  risk  a  battle, 
in  the  hope  of  saving  Moscow.  On  the  evening  of  the  6th  of  Septem- 
ber, the  two  vast  armies  took  their  positions  facing  each  other, — each 
numbering  more  than  130,000  men — the  Russians  having  640  pieces  of 
cannon,  and  the  French  590.  Napoleon  sought  to  stimulate  the  enthu- 
siasm of  his  soldiers  by  recounting  to  them  the  glories  of  Marengo,  of 
Jena,  and  of  Austerlitz,  while  a  possession  of  dignified  clergy  passed 
through  the  Russian  ranks,  bestowing  their  blessings  upon  the  kneeling 
soldiers,  and  invoking  the  aid  of  the  God  of  battles  to  drive  the  invader 
from  the  land. 

At  6  o'clock  on  the  morning  of  the  7th,  a  gun,  fired  from  the 
French  lines,  announced  the  commencement  of  the  battle  ;  the  roar  of 
more  than  1,000  cannon  shook  the  earth  ;  vast  clouds  of  smoke,  shutting 
out  the  light  of  the  sun,  arose  in  awful  sublimity  over  the  scene ;  and 
260,000  combatants,  led  on  in  the  gathering  gloom  by  the  light  of  the 
cannon  and  musketry,  engaged  in  the  work  of  death.  The  battle  raged, 
with  desolating'  fury,  until  night  put  an  end  to  its  horrors.  The 
slaughter  was  immense.  The  loss  on  both  sides  was  nearly  equal, 
amounting,  in  the  aggregate,  to  90,000  in  killed  and  wounded.  The 
Russian  position  was  eventually  carried,  but  neither  side  gained  a 
decisive  victory. 

DESTRUCTION  OF  MOSCOW. 

On  the  day  after  the  battle,  the  Russians  retired,  in  perfect  order, 
on  the  great  road  to  Moscow.  Preparations  were  immediately  made  by 
the  inhabitants  for  abandoning  that  city,  long  revered  as  the  cradle  of  the 
Empire;  and  when,  on  the  14th,  Napoleon  entered  it,  no  deputation  of 
citizens  awaited  him  to  deprecate  his  hostility,  but  the  dwellings  of 
300,000  persons  were  as  silent  as  the  wilderness.  It  seemed  like  a  city  of 
the  dead.  Napoleon  took  up  his  residence  in  the  Kremlin,  the  ancient 
palace  of  the  Czars  ;  but  the  Russian  authorities  had  determined  that 
their  beloved  city  should  not  afford  a  shelter  to  the  invaders.  At  mid- 
night, on  the  night  of  the  15th,  avast  light  was  seen  to  illuminate  the 
most    distant    part   of   the   citj^;   fires   broke  out    in   all    directions,   and 


84  STORY    OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

Moscow  soon  exhibited  a  vast  ocean  of  flame  agitated  by  the  wind. 
Nine-tentlis  ot  tlie  city  were  consumed,  and  Napoleon  was  driven  to  seek 
a  temporary  refuge  for  his  army  in  the  country  ;  but,  afterwards,  return- 
ing to  the  Kremhn,  which  had  escaped  the  ravages  of  the  fire,  he  re- 
mained there  until  the  19th  of  October,  when,  all  his  proposals  of  peace 
being  rejected,  he  was  compelled  to  order  a  retreat. 

HORRORS  OF  THE  RETREAT. 

The  horrors  of  that  retreat,  which,  during  fifty-five  days  that  inter- 
vened until  the  recrossing  of  the  Niemen,  was  almost  one  continued 
battle,  exceeded  anything  before  known  in  the  annals  of  war.  The  exas- 
perated Russians  intercepted  the  retreating  army  wherever  an  oppor- 
tunity offered  ;  and  a  cloud  of  Cossacks,  hovering  incessantly  around 
the  wearied  columns,  gradually  wore  away  their  numbers.  But  the 
severities  of  the  Russian  winter,  which  set  in  on  the  6th  of  November, 
were  far  more  destructive  of  life  than  the  sword  of  the  enemy.  The 
weather,  before  mild,  suddenly  changed  to  intense  cold ;  the  wind  howled 
frightfully  through  the  forests,  or  swept  over  the  plains  with  resistless 
fury  ;  and  the  snow  fell  in  thick  and  continued  showers,  soon  confound- 
ing all  objects,  and  leaving  the  army  to  wander,  without  landmarks, 
through  an   icy  desert. 

Thousands  of  the  soldiers,  falling  benumbed  with  cold,  and  ex- 
hausted, perished  miserably  in  sight  of  their  companions  ;  and  the  route 
of  the  rear  guard  of  the  army  was  literally  choked  up  by  the  icy 
mounds  of  the  dead.  In  their  nightly  bivouacs,  crowds  of  starving 
men  prepared,  around  their  scanty  fires,  a  miserable  meal  of  rye, 
mixed  with  snow-water  and  horse  flesh ;  but  numbers  never  awoke 
from  the  slumbers  that  followed  ;  and  the  sites  of  the  night  fires  were 
marked  by  circles  of  dead  bodies,  with  their  feet  still  resting  on  the  ex- 
tinguished piles.  Clouds  of  ravens,  issuing  from  the  forests,  hovered 
over  the  dying  remains  of  the  soldiers  ;  while  troops  of  famished  dogs 
which  had  followed  the  army  from  Moscow,  howled  in  the  rear,  and  often 
fell  upon  their  victims  before   life  was  extinct. 

The  ambition  of  Napoleon  had  led  the  pride  and  the  chivalry  of 
Europe  to  perish  amid  the  snows  of  a  Russian  winter  ;  and  he  bitterly 
felt  the  taunt  of  the  enemy,  "Could  the  French  find  no  graves  in 
their  own  land  ?" 


STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS.  85 

DESTRUCTION  OF  THE  GRAND  ARMY. 

Napoleon  had  first  thought  of  remaining  in  winter  quarters  at 
Smolensko,  but  the  exhausted  state  of  his  magazines,  and  the  concentrat- 
ing around  him  of  vast  forces  of  the  enemy,  which  threatened  soon  to 
overwhelm  him,  convinced  him  that  a  protracted  stay  was  impossible,  and 
on  the  14th  of  November  the  retreat  was  renewed — Napoleon,  in  the 
midst  of  his  still  faithful  guards,  leading  the  advance,  and  the  heroic  Ney 
bringing  up  the  rear.  But  the  enemy  harassed  them  at  every  step. 
During  the  i6th,  17th  and  i8th,  in  the  battles  of  Krasnoi,  Napoleon  lost 
10,000  killed,  20,000  taken  prisoners,  and  more  than  a  hundred  pieces  of 
cannon  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy.  The  terrible  passage  of  the 
Beresina,  which  was  purchased  by  the  loss  of  16,000  prisoners  and  24,000 
killed  or  drowned  in  the  stream,  completed  the  ruin  of  the  Grand  Army, 
All  subordination  now  ceased,  and  it  was  with  difficulty  that  Marshal 
Ney  could  collect  3000  men  on  foot  to  form  the  rear  guard  and  protect 
the  helpless  multitude  from  the  indefatigable  Cossacks,  and  when  at 
length  the  few  remaining  fugitives  reached  the  passage  of  the  Niemen 
the  rear  guard  was  reduced  to  30  men.  The  veteran  marshal,  bearing 
a  musket  and  still  facing  the  enemy,  was  the  last  of  the  Grand  Army 
who  left  the  Russian  territory.  Napoleon  had  already  abandoned  the 
remnant  of  his  forces,  and  setting  out  in  a  sledge  for  Paris,  he  arrived 
there  at  midnight  on  the  18th  of  December,  even  before  the  news  of  his 
terrible  reverses  had  reached  the  capital.  It  has  been  estimated  that  in 
this  famous  Russian  campaign  125,000  men  of  the  army  of  Napoleon 
perished  in  battle;  that  132,000  died  of  fatigue,  hunger  and  cold,  and 
that  nearly  200,000  were  taken  prisoners. 

LUTZEN  AND  LEIPSIC. 

Notwithstanding  his  terrible  reverses  in  the  Russian  campaign. 
Napoleon  found  that  he  still  possessed  the  confidence  of  the  French 
nation  ;  he  at  once  obtained  from  the  Senate  a  new  levy  of  350,000  men — 
took  the  most  vigorous  measures  to  repair  his  losses,  and  having  ar- 
ranged his  difficulties  with  the  Pope,  on  the  15th  of  April  he  left  Paris  for 
the  theatre  of  war.  In  the  meantime  Prussia  and  Sweden  had  joined  the 
alliance  against  him  ;  a  general  insurrection  spread  over  the  German 
States  ;  Austria  wavered  ;  and  already  the  confederates  had  advanced  as 
fa*-  3s   the   Elbe.     On   the  2d  of  May  Napoleon  gained  the  battle  of 


86  STORY    OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

Lutzen,  and  a  fortnight  later  that  of  Bautzen  ;  but  as  these  were  not 
decisive,  on  the  4th  of  July  an  armistice  was  agreed  to,  and  a  congress 
met  at  Prague  to  consider  terms  of  peace. 

As  Napoleon  would  listen  to  nothing  calculated  to  limit  his  power, 
on  the  expiration  of  the  armistice,  on  the  loth  of  August,  war  was  re- 
newed, when  the  Austrian  Emperor,  abandoning  the  cause  of  his  son-in- 
law,  joined  the  allies.  Napoleon  at  once  commenced  a  series  of  vigorous 
operations  against  his  several  foes,  and  with  various  success  fought  the 
battles  of  Culm,  Cross  Beren,  the  Katsbach  and  Dennewitz,  in  which  the 
allies,  although  not  decidedly  victorious,  were  constantly  gaining  strength. 
In  the  first  battle  of  Leipsic,  fought  on  the  i6th  of  October,  the  result 
was  indecisive,  but  in  the  battle  of  the  i8th  the  French  were  signally  de- 
feated, and  on  the  following  morning  began  a  retrograde  movement  to- 
wards the  Rhine.  Pressed  on  all  sides  by  the  allies,  great  numbers  were 
made  prisoners  during  the  retreat ;  about  80,000,  left  to  garrison  the 
Prussian  fortresses,  surrendered ;  the  Saxons,  Hanoverians  and  Hol- 
landers threw  off  the  French  yoke,  and  it  was  at  this  time  that  Wellington 
was  completing  the  expulsion  of  the  French  from  Spain. 

INVASION  OF  FRANCE. 

The  year  1814  opened  with  the  invasion  of  France,  on  the  eastern 
frontiers,  by  the  Prussian,  Russian  and  Austrian  armies  ;  while  Welling- 
ton, having  crossed  the  Pyrenees,  laid  siege  to  Bayonne.  Bernadotte, 
the  old  comrade  of  Napoleon,  but  now  King  of  Sweden,  was  marching 
asfainst  France  at  the  head  of  a  100,000  men  ;  and  Murat,  King  of 
Naples,  brother-in-law  of  the  French  Emperor,  eager  to  secure  his  crown, 
entered  into  a  secret  treaty  with  Austria  for  the  expulsion  of  the  French 
from  Italy.  Never  did  the  military  talents  of  Napoleon  shine  with  greater 
lustre  than  at  this  crisis.  During  two  months,  with  a  greatly  inferior 
force,  he  repelled  the  attacks  of  his  enemies,  gained  many  brilliant  vic- 
tories, and  electrified  all  Europe  by  the  rapidity  and  skill  of  his  move- 
ments. But  the  odds  were  too  great  against  him  ;  the  enemy  had  crossed 
the  Rhine,  and  while,  by  a  bold  movement,  Napoleon  threw  himself  into 
the  rear  of  the  allies,  hoping  to  intimidate  them  into  a  retreat,  they 
marched  upon  Paris,  which  was  compelled  to  capitulate  before  he  could 
come  to  its  relief  Two  days  later  the  Emperor  was  formally  deposed 
by  the  Senate,  and  on  the  6th  of  April,  with  a  trembling  hand,  he  signed 


STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS.  8/ 

an  unconditional  abdication  of  the  thrones  of  France  and  Italy.  By  a 
treaty  concluded  between  him  and  the  allies  on  the  nth,  Napoleon  was 
promised  the  sovereignty  of  the  island  of  Elba  and  a  pension  of 
^100,000  per  annum.  On  the  3d  of  May,  Louis  XVIII,  returning  from 
his  long  exile,  re-entered  Paris.  To  conciliate  the  French  people  he  gave 
them  a  constitutional  charter,  and  soon  after  concluded  a  formal  treaty 
with  the  allies,  by  which  the  continental  dominions  of  France  were  re- 
stricted to  what  they  had  been  in  1792. 

NAPOLEON'S  RETURN  FROM  ELBA. 

The  final  settlement  of  European  affairs  had  been  left  to  a  general 
congress  of  the  ministers  of  the  allied  powers,  which  assembled  at 
Vienna  on  the  25th  of  September;  but  while  the  conferences  were  still 
pending,  the  congress  was  thrown  into  consternation  by  the  announce- 
ment that  Napoleon  had  left  Elba.  An  extensive  conspiracy  had  been 
formed  throughout  France  for  restoring  the  fallen  Emperor,  and  on  the 
1st  of  March,  18 15,  he  landed  at  Frejus,  accompanied  by  only  1 100  men. 
Everywhere  the  soldiery  received  him  with  enthusiasm.  Ney,  who  had 
sworn  fidelity  to  the  new  government,  went  over  to  him  at  the  head  of  a 
force  sent  to  arrest  his  progress  ;  and  on  the  evening  of  the  20th  of 
March  he  re-entered  the  French  capital,  which  Louis  XVIII  had  left 
early  in  the  morning.  With  the  exception  of  Augereau,  Marmont,  Mac- 
donald  and  a  few  others,  all  the  officers,  civil  and  military,  embraced  his 
cause.  At  the  end  of  a  month  his  authority  was  reestablished  through- 
out all  France,  and  he  again  found  himself  at  the  summit  of  power  by 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  transitions  recorded  in  history'. 

In  vain  Napoleon  now  attempted  to  open  negotiations  with  the 
allied  powers,  and  professed  an  ardent  desire  for  peace  ;  the  allies  de- 
nounced him  as  the  common  enemy  of  Europe,  and  refused  to  recognize 
his  authority  as  emperor  of  the  French  people.  All  Europe  was  now  in 
arms  against  the  usurper,  and  it  was  estimated  that,  by  the  middle  of 
summer,  600,000  effective  men  could  be  assembled  against  him  on  the 
French  frontiers.  But  nothing  which  genius  and  activity  could  accom- 
plish was  wanting  on  the  part  of  Napoleon  to  meet  the  coming  storm  ; 
and  in  a  country  that  seemed  drained  of  men  and  money,  he  was  able, 
by  the  ist  of  June,  to  put  on  foot  an  army  of  220,000  veterans  who  had 
served  in  his  former  wars. 


88  STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED   YEARS. 

WATERLOO. 

His  policy  was  to  attack  the  allies  in  detail,  before  their  forces  could 
be  concentrated,  and  with  this  view  he  hastened  across  the  Belgian 
frontier  on  the  15th  of  June  with  a  force  numbering,  at  that  point, 
120,000  men.  On  the  i6th  he  defeated  the  Prussians,  under  Blucher, 
at  Ligny,  but  at  the  same  time  Ney  was  defeated  by  Wellington  at 
Quatre  Bras.  The  defeat  of  the  Prussians  induced  Wellington  to  fall 
back  upon  Waterloo,  where,  at  11  o'clock  on  the  morning  of  the  i8th, 
he  was  attacked  by  Napoleon  in  person,  while  at  the  same  time  large 
bodies  of  French  and  Prussians  were  engaged  at  Wavre.  On  the  field 
of  Waterloo  the  combat  raged  during  the  day  with  terrific  fury — Napo- 
leon in  vain  hurling  column  after  column  upon  the  British  lines,  which 
withstood  his  assaults  like  a  wall  of  adamant ;  and  when,  at  7  o'clock, 
in  the  evening  be  brought  up  the  Imperial  Guard  for  a  final  effort  it  was 
driven  back  in  disorder.  At  the  same  time  Blucher,  coming  up  with  the 
Prussians,  completed  the  rout  of  the  French  army.  The  broken  host 
fled  in  all  directions,  and  Napoleon  himself,  hastening  to  Paris,  was  the 
herald  of  his  own  defeat.  Once  more  the  capital  capitulated,  and  was 
occupied  by  foreign  troops.  Napoleon  a  second  time  abdicated  the 
throne,  and  after  vainly  attempting  to  escape  to  America,  surrendered 
himself  to  a  British  man-of-war.  He  was  banished  by  the  allies  to  the 
Island  of  St.  Helena,  where  he  died  on  the  5th  of  May,  1821,  during  one 
of  the  most  violent  tempests  that  had  ever  raged  on  the  island — fitting 
time  for  the  soul  of  Napoleon  to  take  its  departure.  In  his  last  moments 
his  thoughts  wandered  to  the  scenes  of  his  military  glory,  and  his  last 
words  were  those  of  command,  as  he  fancied  himself  at  the  head  of 
his  armies. 

RESTORATION  OF  THE  BOURBONS. 

After  the  capitulation  of  Paris,  the  tranquilization  of  France  and  the 
future  peace  and  safety  of  Europe  received  the  first  attention  of  the 
allies.  Louis  XVIII,  following  in  the  rear  of  their  armies,  entered  the 
capital  on  the  8th  of  July,  but  the  French  people  felt  too  deeply  the 
humiliation  of  defeat  to  express  any  joy  at  his  restoration.  The  mourn- 
ful tragedy  which  followed,  in  the  execution  of  Marshal  Ney  and 
Labedoyere  for  high  treason  in  favoring  Napoleon's  return  from  Elba, 
after  the  undoubted  protection  which  had  been  guaranteed  them  by  the 
capitulation  of  Paris,  was  a  stain  upon  the  character  of  the  allies  ;  and 


LOUIS  JACQUtS  DAGUERRE 
HENRY  BE55EMER  ALFRED  KRUPP 


I8I0— PROMINENT  INVENTORS  OF  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY 


STORY    OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS.  9 1 

although  Ney's  treason  was  beyond  that  of  any  other  man,  to  the  end  of 
the  world  his  euilt  will  be  forcrotten  in  the  broken  faith  of  his  enemies 
and  the  tragic  interest  and  noble  heroism  of  his  death.  The  fate  of 
Murat,  king  of  Naples,  was  equally  mournful,  but  less  unjust.  On 
Napoleon's  landing  at  Frejus  he  had  made  a  diversion  in  his  favor  by 
breaking  his  alliance  with  Austria  and  commencing  the  war  ;  but  the 
cowardly  Neapolitans  were  easily  overthrown,  and  Murat  was  obliged  to 
seek  refuse  in  France.  At  the  head  of  a  few  followers  he  afterwards 
made  a  descent  upon  the  coast  of  Naples,  in  the  hope  of  regaining  his 
power ;  but  being  seized,  he  was  tried  by  a  military  commission,  con- 
demned and  executed. 

THE  SECOND  PEACE  OF  PARIS. 

On  the  20th  of  November,  1815,  the  second  treaty  of  Paris  was 
concluded  between  France  and  the  allied  powers,  by  which  the  French 
frontier  was  narrowed  to  nearly  the  state  in  which  it  stood  in  1 790  ; 
twenty-eight  million  pounds  sterling  were  to  be  paid  by  France  for  the 
e.xpenses  of  the  war,  and  a  larger  sum  still  for  the  spoliations  which  she 
had  inflicted  on  other  powers  during  her  revolution,  and  for  five  years 
her  frontier  fortresses  were  to  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  her  recent 
enemies  ;  while  the  vast  treasures  of  art  which  adorned  the  museums  of 
the  Louvre — the  trophies  of  a  hundred  victories — were  to  be  restored  to 
the  States  from  which  they  had  been  pillaged  by  the  orders  of  Napoleon. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


The  War  for  Independence  in  South  America — Simon  Boliveu- — Liberator 

and  Dictator— La  Puerta  and  San  Marco — Republic  of  Bolivia  — 

Revolution     of    Mexico  —  Hidalgo  —  Death    of    Hidalgo— 

Calleja  —  Russia     and    Turkey  —  Stories    of    the 

Years — Scientific   Progress. 


IN  a  former  chapter  we  have  told  of  the  beginning  of  the  war  foi 
independence  begun  by  General  Miranda  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
South  American  Continent. 

The  Spanish  dominion  continued  but  a  few  years  longer.  The 
great  revolution  burst  out  in  1810.  The  captain-general  of  Caracas  was 
deposed  on  the  19th  of  April,  and  a  popular  congress  convened  to  organ 
ize  a  new  government  for  Venezuela.  The  same  was  done  at  Bogota 
the  capital  of  New  Grenada,  which  erected  itself,  at  first,  into  a  separate 
republic.  The  congress  of  Venezuela  published  a  declaration  of  inde- 
pendence on  the  5th  of  July,  181 1,  and  this  example  was  followed  by  the 
other  provinces,  which  were  afterwards  united  in  the  republic  of 
Colombia. 

The  history  of  this  revolution,  like  that  of  most  others  of  the 
Spanish  American  States,  is  filled  with  a  perplexing  and  most  wearisome 
detail  of  political  changes,  party  manoeuvres,  factions,  intrigues,  negotia- 
tions, plots  and  counter-plots,  and  marches  and  counter-marches  of 
political  and  military  leaders. 

SIMON  BOLIVAR. 

The  whole  control  of  the  revolution  soon  became  engrossed  in  the 
hands  of  one  individual,  who,  for  many  years,  became  the  most  promi 
nent  and  powerful  man  in  South  America.  This  man  was  Simon  Bolivar, 
a -native  of  Caracas,  who,  as  early  as  1810,  was  sent  to  London  as  agent 
for  the  revolutionary  government,  to  solicit  aid  from  the  British.  That 
government,  however,  determined  to  remain  neutral.  Bolivar  returned 
to  Venezuela,  where  he  was  made  colonel  in  the  independent  army,  and 

92 


STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS.  93 

governor  of  Puerto  Cabello.  General  Miranda  had  returned  to  this 
country,  and  was  appointed  commander-in-cliief  of  the  forces.  The 
Spaniards  sent  armies  into  the  country,  and  many  actions  were  fought. 
The  patriots  were  generally  successful  till  i8 12,  when  they  experienced 
a  terrible  calamity.  On  the  26th  of  March,  an  earthquake  destroyed, 
either  entirely  or  in  part,  the  city  of  Caracas,  killing  20.000  persons. 
This  was  regarded  by  the  superstitious  people  as  a  Divine  rebuke  to  the 
revolution.  Meantime  the  royalist  troops  were  getting  possession  of 
the  whole  country.  Miranda,  in  despair,  capitulated,  and  was  preparing 
to  leave  the  country,  when  he  was  arrested  by  the  patriots  as  a  traitor. 
He  was  delivered  up  to  the  royalist  general,  Monteverde,  and  sent  to 
Spain,  where  he  died  in  a  dungeon. 

Venezuela  was  now  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  royalists,  and  deeds 
of  revolting  ferocity  and  plunder  reduced  the  whole  country  to  a  fright- 
ful state  of  misery  ;  old  men,  women  and  children  were  seized  and  mas- 
sacred as  rebels.  One  of  Monteverde's  officers  cut  off  the  ears  of  the 
patriots,  and  had  them  stuck  in  the  caps  of  his  soldiers  for  cockades.  In 
this  state  of  things,  Bolivar  began  to  show  the  firmness  and  energy  of 
his  character.  He  raised  a  small  force,  and  in  December,  18 12,  entered 
upon  a  campaign  against  the  royalists.  He  defeated  them  at  Teneriffe, 
Ocana  and  Cucuta,  and  by  an  expedition  to  Bogota,  increased  his  army 
to  2000  men.  Marching  back,  along  the  Andes,  he  invaded  Venezuela, 
and  defeated  the  royalists  in  several  other  battles.  The  war  now 
assumed  the  most  bloody  character;  the  terrible  cruelties  of  Monteverde 
obliged  the  patriots  to  commence  reprisals,  and  the  most  horrible 
butcheries  were  the  consequence.  The  cause  of  independence  was  now 
more  prosperous.  Bolivar  defeated  Monteverde  at  Lostaguanes,  and  on 
the  4th  of  August,  1 8 14,  he  entered  the  city  of  Caracas  in  triumph.  The 
joy  of  the  people  exceeded  all  bounds,  and  this  was  undoubtedly  the 
most  brilliant  day  in  Bolivar's  whole  career.  The  whole  population 
crowded  to  meet  him  with  acclamations,  and  he  was  drawn  into  the  city 
in  a  triumphal  car  by  twelve  beautiful  young  ladies,  of  the  first  families 
in  Caracas,  while  others  crowned  him  with  laurels  and  strewed  his  way 
with  flowers. 

LIBERATOR  AND  DICTATOR. 

Bolivar  was  now  in  the  possession  of  unlimited  power  in  this  part 
of  the  country,  and  assumed  the  title  of  Liberator  and  Dictator  of  the 


94  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

western  provinces  of  Venezuela.  This  gave  great  offence  to  the  demo- 
cratic party,  and  charges  were  uttered  against  him  of  studying  his  own 
aggrandizement;  yet  the  enthusiasm  in  his  favor  confirmed  the  dictatorial 
power  in  his  hands.  In  the  meantime,  the  royaHsts  at  a  distance  were 
still  deluging  the  country  with  blood.  Boves  and  Rosette,  two  of  their 
generals,  in  a  march  of  400  miles  from  the  Orinoco  to  the  Ocumare, 
with  an  army  of  slaves  and  vagabonds,  murdered  every  individual  who 
refused  to  join  them.  General  Puy,  a  negro  assassin  and  a  robber  in 
the  royal  interest,  having  murdered  hundreds  of  the  patriot  inhabitants 
of  Varinas,  Bolivar,  to  deter  him  from  the  repetition  of  such  atrocities, 
ordered  800  Spaniards  in  La  Guayra  and  Caracas  to  be  arrested  and 
shot,  in  February,  1814.  This  was  retaliated  by  the  royalists,  who  mas- 
sacred their  prisoners  in  Puerto  Cabello.  The  patriots,  however,  did 
not  repeat  these  dreadful  reprisals,  and  Bolivar,  in  July,  1816,  formally 
proclaimed,  "No  Spaniard  shall  be  put  to  death  except  in  battle:  the 
war  of  death  shall  cease." 

LA  PUERTA  AND  SAN  MARCO. 

Success  continued  to  fluctuate  between  the  patriots  and  royalists. 
On  the  14th  of  June,  18 14,  a  battle  was  fought  at  La  Puerta,  in  which 
Bolivar  was  defeated,  with  a  loss  of  1500  men.  Another  action  occurred 
on  the  17th  of  August,  at  San  Marco,  the  estate  of  Bolivar.  Here  the 
Liberator's  army  was  surprised  by  the  "infernal  division"  of  Boves,  a 
legion  of  negro  cavalry,  with  black  crape  on  their  lances,  who  rushed 
with  hideous  shouts  from  an  ambush,  and  scattered  Bolivar's  whole  force 
by  the  suddenness  and  impetuosity  of  their  assault  ;  the  general  escaped 
only  by  the  fleetness  of  his  horse.  Bolivar's  family  mansion  was  burnt 
to  the  ground,  and  he  was  ultimately  compelled,  in  September,  to  leave 
the  royalists  in  possession  of  all  Venezuela,  when  thousands  of  the 
patriots  deserted  to  their  ranks.  He  repaired  to  New  Grenada,  where 
the  government  employed  him  in  their  army  to  subjugate  the  revolted 
province  of  Cundinamarca.  Bolivar  captured  the  city  of  Bogota,  which 
afterwards  became  the  capital  of  Colombia.  He  returned  to  Venezuela 
in  1 81 6,  but  was  again  defeated.  Notwithstanding,  he  persevered  in  his 
exertions,  and  in  December  of  the  same  year,  he  convened  a  general 
congress.  In  March,  181 7,  he  was  enabled  to  give  the  royalists  a 
severe  check. 


I 

o 
w 
z 

PI 

> 

r 

I 

> 

2 

O 

z 


r. 

c 


z 


> 
z 


I8ll— COURSE  OF  THE  GREAT  COMET  NEAR  THE  RHINE,  GERMANY 


STORY    OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS.  97 

Numerous  transactions  took  place  between  the  patriot  and  royalist 
forces  during  this  and  the  following  year,  but  our  limits  will  not  admit  of 
a  detailed  account  of  them  ;  victory  remained  nearly  balanced  between 
the  two  parties,  but  the  cause  of  independence  was  gaining  strength. 

REPUBLIC  OF  BOLIVIA. 

The  republic  of  Bolivia  was  formed  out  of  the  provinces  of  Upper 
Peru,  which  under  the  Spanish  dominion  were  governed  as  a  dependency 
of  Buenos  Ayres.  These  provinces  were  wrested  from  the  Spaniards 
by  the  victory  of  Ayacucho,  in  December,  1828.  General  Sucre,  who, 
at  the  head  of  the  Colombian  forces,  gained  this  victory,  soon  cleared 
the  country  of  the  royalist  forces,  and  no  obstacle  existed  to  the  forma- 
tion of  an  independent  government.  A  congress  assembled  at  Chuqui- 
saca,  in  August,  1825,  and  lodged  the  supreme  authority  provisionally  in 
the  hands  of  Sucre,  while,  as  a  testimonial  of  their  gratitude  to  Bolivar, 
they  requested  him  to  frame  a  constitution  for  them.  Bolivar  accordingly 
drew  up  a  plan  of  government,  founded  on  a  representative  basis  but  of 
a  very  complicated  and  inconvenient  character.  The  chief  magistrate  is 
a  president  who  appoints  his  own  successor,  nominates  to  all  offices,  ex- 
ercises the  whole  patronage  of  the  government,  and  is  irresponsible  for 
his  actions.  This  constitution  was  adopted  by  the  congress,  and  went 
into  operation  in  December,  1826. 

REVOLUTION  OF  MEXICO. 

The  revolutionary  conspiracies  in  Mexico,  which  began  in  1808,  cul- 
minated in  the  seizure  of  the  Spanish  Viceroy  by  the  chief  Spaniards, 
and  the  sending  him  a  prisoner  to  Spain,  while  the  reins  of  government 
were  assumed  by  a  committee  of  Spaniards,  to  save  the  country  from 
falling  into  the  hands  of  the  Creoles  and  Indians.  The  Spanish  Govern- 
ment sent  a  new  viceroy,  who  encountered  new  plots  and  troubles. 
Finally,  in  iSio,  an  insurrection  of  natives  rose  openly  against  the 
government. 

HIDALGO. 

These  men  were  led  by  Hidalgo,  a  priest  of  some  talents,  and  an 
enthusiast  in  the  cause  of  independence.  From  Dolores,  where  they 
first  assembled,  they  marched  upon  the  wealthy  city  of  Guanaxuato, 
which  they  took  and  pillaged.     The  viceroy  dispatched  his  forces  to  sup- 


98  STOUY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

press  the  rebellion,  but  the  whole  country  through  which  Hidalgo  passed, 
took  up  arms  and  joined  him.  Acting  with  great  policy,  he  abolished 
the  tribute  paid  by  the  aborigines,  which  brought  all  the  Indians  to  his 
standard.  Valladolid  fell  into  his  hands,  and  on  the  24th  of  October, 
the  priest  Hidalgo  was  proclaimed  generalissimo  of  the  Mexican  armies. 
On  this  occasion  he  threw  aside  his  sacerdotal  robes  and  appeared  in 
uniform.  He  advanced  upon  the  capital,  and  in  three  days  entered 
Toluco,  not  more  than  twelve  miles  from  Mexico.  The  royal  forces  were 
scattered  throughout  the  country,  and  Mexico  was  in  imminent  danger. 
After  some  skirmishes  the  independent  army  approached  to  the  heights 
of  Santa  Fe,  where  the  royalists,  with  a  much  inferior  force,  were  drawn 
up  to  defend  the  city.  Mexico  was  on  the  point  of  seeing  a  conquering 
army  enter  her  gates,  when,  to  the  astonishment  of  every  spectator, 
Hidalgo  suddenly  wheeled  to  the  right-about,  and  marched  away.  This 
extraordinary  proceeding  was  never  explained. 

DEATH  OF  HIDALGO. 

Hidalgo  retreated  to  the  neighborhood  of  Guadalaxara.  The  roy- 
alists now  had  leisure  to  collect  a  strong  force,  and  pursued  him.  A 
sanguinary  battle  was  fought  on  the  17th  of  January,  181 1,  which  ended 
in  the  total  defeat  and  dispersion  of  the  independent  army.  Hidalgo 
made  his  escape,  but  was  closely  pursued  from  post  to  post,  till  at  length 
his  retreat  was  cut  off;  when,  by  the  treachery  of  one  of  his  own  men, 
he  was  betrayed  and  made  prisoner  with  all  his  staff,  on  the  21st  of 
March.  Fifty  of  his  officers  were  executed  on  the  spot.  Hidalgo  was 
tried  and  shot,  at  Chihuahua,  on  the  20th  of  June,  181 1. 

The  death  of  Hidalgo  did  not  stop  the  progress  of  the  revolution 
in  other  quarters.  In  the  meantime,  the  whole  country  had  risen  in  in- 
surrection, and  many  leaders  began  to  act  separately.  The  most  remark- 
able among  them  was  Morelos,  another  priest,  who,  with  great  activity, 
talents  and  success,  maintained  the  rebellion  in  the  southern  provinces, 
and  organized  a  junta  or  central  government,  which,  in  September,  1811, 
assembled  at  Zacaturo,  in  Mechoacan.  This  town  was  soon  after  cap- 
tured by  Calleja,  a  royalist  general,  and  the  junta  dispersed.  Morelos 
penetrated  into  the  highlands  of  Tenochtitlan,  where  he  fought  many 
battles  with  Calleja  during  a  period  of  three  months.  He  took  Acapulco, 
Oaxaca,  and  many  other  towns,  and  convened  a  congress  at  Apatzinjan, 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  99 

in  the  province  of  Valladolid.  Tliis  congress  took  the  name  of  the 
National  Assembly,  and  declared  the  independence  of  Mexico  on  the 
13th  of  November,  18 13.  A  constitution  was  framed,  and  proposals  for 
a  suspension  of  hostilities  were  made  to  the  royalists,  but  without  effect. 

CALLEJA. 

Calleja,  who  was  now  appointed  viceroy,  prosecuted  the  war  with 
barbarous  cruelty.  Morelos  involved  himself  in  difficulties  by  surtvuder- 
ing  his  authority  to  the  congress  at  this  critical  period.  All  his  military 
plans  were  defeated  by  the  interference  and  delays  of  that  body,  and  he 
no  longer  met  with  any  success,  and  in  November,  181 5,  he  was  taken 
prisoner,  carried  to  Mexico  and  shot. 

The  war  was  feebly  carried  on  until  the  arrival  of  a  new  partisan 
from  Europe.  This  was  General  Mina,  nephew  of  the  guerrilla  chief, 
so  celebrated  in  the  war  in  Spain.  He  sailed  from  England  with  a  small 
force  in  May,  18 16,  and  after  visiting  the  United  States,  where  he  received 
some  reinforcements,  he  landed  at  Galveston  in  November.  There  he 
organized  his  forces,  proceeded  to  Soto  la  Marina,  in  April,  1817,  and 
took  up  his  march  for  Mexico.  After  valiant  struggles,  however,  he  was 
totally  defeated,  taken  prisoner,  and  put  to  death.  Thereafter  the  revo- 
lution languished,  and  before  long  was  practically  extinguished. 

RUSSIA  AND  TURKEY. 

The  antagonism  between  Russia  and  Turkey  continued.  Russia, 
on  one  pretext  or  another,  constantly  pressed  her  aggressions  against 
the  Ottoman  Empire,  and  steadily  gained  ground.  In  iSio  the  Russian 
General  Kamenskoi  conducted  a  campaign  in  Bulgaria,  and  was  gen- 
erally successful,  though  he  received  a  check  at  Shumla.  The  next  year 
Kutusoff  carried  on  the  war  against  the  Turks  along*  the  Danube,  with 
some  success.  The  war  ended  in  May,  18 12,  when  the  peace  of  Bucha- 
rest was  concluded  and  the  River  Pruth  was  made  the  boundary  between 
the  two  empires. 

In  another  part  of  the  Moslem  world  the  year  i8n  was  marked  by 
a  stupendous  tragedy.  This  was  the  massacre  of  the  Mamelukes,  at 
Cairo,  by  Mehemet  Ali.  This  act  was  deemed  necessary,  on  account  of 
the  insubordinate  disposition  of  the  Mamelukes.  But  by  it  Egypt  and 
the  Moslem  world  lost  its  most  effective  body  of  fighting  men. 


lOO  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

Russia,  in  1814,  concliided  with  Persia  a  treaty  at  Tiflis,  called  the 
Peace  of  Gulistan,  under  which  Persia  was  compelled  to  cede  to  Russia 
a  large  region,  including  Daghestan,  Shirvan,  Baku,  and  other  territories. 

The  year  18 15  saw  the  Ionian  Islands  made  into  a  republic  under 
the  protectorate  of  Great  Britain.  At  the  same  time  Milosh  Obreno- 
vitch  headed  a  new  insurrection  of  the  Servian  people  against  Turkish 
rule,  and  thus  founded  the  Obrenovitch  dynasty  in  that  country.  He 
was  chosen  Prince  of  Servia  in  181 7. 

STORIES  OF  THE  YEARS. 

We  may  well  review  in  brief  the  salient  incidents  of  the  time,  year 
by  year.  In  1809  Haydn,  one  of  the  greatest  of  musicians,  died.  King 
George  III.  of  Great  Britain  became  hopelessly  insane  in  18 10,  and  the 
affairs  of  State  had  to  be  entrusted  thereafter  to  a  Regency.  In  the  same 
year  Bernadotte,  who  had  been  one  of  Bonaparte's  marshals,  was  pro- 
claimed Crown  Prince  of  Sweden,  and  thus  the  way  was  opened  for  the 
establishment  of  the  present  dynasty  in  that  kingdom.  The  opening  of 
the  University  of  Berlin  was  in  the  same  year  an  incident  of  significance 
in  the  intellectual  world. 

The  year  181 1  saw  the  British  conquest  of  Java,  which  island  was 
afterwards  restored  to  the  Dutch.  In  this  year  Niebuhr  began  the  pub- 
lication of  his  famous  historical  works.  A  more  sensational  literary 
incident  was  the  publication  of  the  first  part  of  Byron's  "Childe  Harold" 
in  1S12,  in  which  the  world  perceived  the  advent  of  one  of  the  greatest 
poets  of  all  time.  American  literature  was  promoted  by  the  foundation 
of  "The  North  American  Review." 

SCIENTIFIC  progre:ss 

The  year  18 14  was  marked  in  the  scientific  world  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  illuminating  gas  in  the  city  of  London,  and  by  the  death  of  Count 
Rumford,  one  of  the  ablest  scientists  of  his  day  as  well  as  a  conspicuous 
statesman.  The  death  of  Fichte  occurred  in  the  sam.e  year  ;  the  suc- 
cessor of  Kant  and  the  second  of  the  four  great  German  philosophers. 
In  the  preceding  year,  1813,  the  world  suffered  loss  in  the  death  of 
Wieland  and  Delille,  the  poets,  and  of  Lagrange,  the  illustrious  geom- 
eter, who  formulated  the  scientific  doctrines  of  planetary  orbits.  In 
these  years  the  world  was  making  steady  and  even  rapid  progress  in  the 
ways  of  civilization  and  of  scientific  and  literary  achievement. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


James   Monroe  Becomes  President  of  the  United  States— Acquisition  of 
Florida— The  Monroe  Doctrine — Three  New  States — The  Missouri 
Compromise  —  Treaties  and    Controversies  —  Lafayette  — 
The   Pension  System— Revision    of  the   Tariff- 
Re-election   of  Mr.   Monroe. 


Mi 


R.  MADISON,  after  having  filled  the  office  of  President  eight 
years,  was  succeeded,  in  1817,  by  James  Monroe,  who  had  held 
the  office  of  Secretary  of  State  during  most  of  the  time  of  Mr. 
Madison's  administration.  In  182  i,  Mr.  Monroe  wanted  only  a 
single  vote  of  a  unanimous  re-election. 

During  Mr.  Monroe's  administration  the  United  States  were  at 
peace,  with  the  exception  of  a  war  with  the  Seminole  and  Creek  Indians, 
and  the  prosperity  of  the  country,  which  had  been  interrupted  in  the  war 
with  England,  was  gradually  restored. 

Mr.  Monroe  was  the  possessor  of  a  sound  and  discriminating  judg- 
ment, and  a  remarkably  calm  and  quiet  temperament.  In  not  a  few  of 
the  qualities  of  his  mind  he  resembled  Washington,  and,  like  that  great 
and  good  man,  apparently  had  the  true  interests  of  his  country  in  view 
in  the  acts  and  measures  of  his  administration.  He  may  be  said  to  be 
fortunate  in  respect  to  the  time  and  circumstances  of  his  accession  to 
the  presidency.  A  war,  of  whose  justice  and  expediency  a  respectable 
portion  of  the  country  had  strong  doubts — and  as  to  which,  therefore, 
loud  and  even  angry  debate  had  existed,  both  in  Congress  and  through 
out  the  country — that  war  had  terminated,  and  the  asperities  growing 
out  of  different  views  entertained  of  it  were  fast  subsiding.  Commerce, 
too,  was  beginning  to  revive,  and  the  manufacturers  were  hoping  for 
more  auspicious  days.  In  every  department  of  industry  there  was  the 
commencement  of  activity  ;  and,  although  the  country  had  suffered  too 
long  and  too  seriously  to  regain  at  once  her  former  prosperity,  hopes 
of  better  times  were  indulged,  and  great  confidence  was  reposed  in  the 
wise  and  prudent  counsels  of  the  new  President. 

lOI 


[02  STORY  OF  ONE   HUNDRED    YEARS. 

It  was  during  his  administration  that,  after  various  minor  changes 
of  pattern,  the  United  States  Hag  was  finally  adopted  in  its  present 
form,  and  the  foundation  of  the  present  Capitol  building  was  laid  at 
Washington. 

ACQUISITION   or  FLORIDA. 

The  first  important  incident  of  President  Monroe's  administration 
was  another  of  those  Indian  wars  which  were  so  numerous  in  the  early 
history  of  this  country.  At  that  time  Florida  still  belonged  to  Spain, 
a.nd  was  largely  occupied  by  the  Seminole  Indians.  The  Seminoles  were 
a  warlike  and  powerful  tribe,  possessing  not  only  horses  and  cattle,  but 
also  many  human  slaves.  They  were  much  given  to  raiding  adjoining 
territories,  especially  the  country  of  the  Creek  Indians  in  Georgia.  To 
put  a  stop  to  this,  General  Jackson,  the  hero  of  the  battle  of  New 
Orleans,  went  against  them  with  an  army  of  4000  men,  many  of  whom 
were  Creeks.  He  not  only  drove  the  Seminoles  out  of  Georgia,  but 
followed  them  into  the  Spanish  territory  of  Florida,  and  there  captured 
several  Spanish  forts  behind  which  they  had  taken  refuge.  This  invasion 
of  a  Spanish  province,  at  a  time  when  the  United  States  was  at  peace 
with  Spain,  was  bitterly  resented  by  the  Spanish  government.  Owing, 
however,  to  troubles  at  home  caused  by  the  Napoleonic  wars,  Spain  did 
not  see  fit  to  resort  to  extreme  measures,  but  presently  concluded  a 
treaty  with  the  United  States  by  which  she  agreed  to  sell  to  this  country 
the  whole  territory  of  Florida  for  the  sum  of  ^5,000,000.  This  was  done 
in  18 1 9.  The  territory  of  Florida  itself  was  well  worth  the  money.  But, 
in  addition,  the  United  States  acquired  under  the  same  treaty  all  of 
Spain's  rights  and  title  to  all  the  country  west  of  the  Louisiana  purchase, 
including-  California  and  Oregon. 

THE   MONROE  DOCTRINE. 

The  incident  of  President  Monroe's  administration  which  makes  the 
greatest  mark  in  history,  and  by  which  Mr.  Monroe  himself  is  best 
remembered,  was  the  enunciation  of  what  is  known  as  the  "  Monroe 
Doctrine."  At  that  time,  as  is  related  elsewhere  in  this  volume,  the 
chief  continental  powers  of  Europe,  under  the  lead  of  Russia,  formed 
a  so-called  Holy  Alliance,  the  object  of  which  was  to  maintain  and 
extend  monarchical  institutions  throughout  the  world,  and  to  repress, 
if  not  to  suppress,  civil  and  religious  liberty.     Great  Britain  was  strongly 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  IO3 

Opposed  to  this  Alliance,  realizing  its  serious  menace  to  progress  and 
civilization.  The  British  Foreign  Minister  of  that  time,  the  illustrious 
George  Canning,  suggested  to  John  Quincy  Adams,  Mr.  Monroe's  Sec- 
retary of  State,  that  the  objects  of  the  Alliance  were  inimical  to  the 
United  States,  and  that  some  concert  of  action  toward  it  between  Great 
Britain  and  this  country  might  be  desirable.  The  result  was  that,  in  his 
message  to  Congress  in  the  fall  of  1823,  President  Monroe  set  forth  in 
emphatic  language  the  doctrine  which  bears  his  name.  This  was,  in 
brief,  an  announcement  to  all  the  world  that,  while  the  United  States 
would  not  interfere  with  such  possessions  as  the  monarchical  powers 
of  Europe  then  had  upon  the  American  continents,  it  would  not  permit 
them  to  extend  those  possessions  at  the  expense  and  to  the  oppression 
of  the  independent  republics  already  existing  here  ;  and  he  asserted 
that,  "as  a  principle,  the  American  continents  are  henceforth  not  to  be 
considered  as  subjects  for  future  colonization  by  any  European  power." 
At  this  time  the  various  States  of  South  and  Central  America  had  practi- 
cally won  their  independence  from  Spain,  and  the  Monroe  Doctrine  was 
therefore  practically  an  act  of  protection  extended  over  them  to  prevent 
the  reconquest  of  them  that  was  threatened  by  the  Holy  Alliance.  Since 
that  date  the  Monroe  Doctrine  has  formed  an  integral  part  of  the  foreign 
policy  of  the  United  States,  and  has  been  respected  by  the  world. 

THREE  NEW   STATi:s. 

The  acquisition  of  Florida  greatly  promoted  colonization  and  general 
development  of  the  region  bordering  upon  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The 
region  now  forming  the  States  of  Mississippi  and  Alabama  had  been 
known  as  the  Mississippi  Territory.  It  was  now  divided  into  two  Ter- 
ritories, known  as  Mississippi  and  Alabama.  The  former  was  admitted 
into  the  Union  as  a  State  in  1817  and  the  latter  in  181 9.  These  were 
both  slave  States.  At  a  date  between  the  two,  in  1818,  Illinois  was 
admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  free  State.  Arkansas  was  erected  into  a 
Territory. 

THE  MISSOURI  COMPROMISE. 

At  about  this  time  the  great  controversy  over  slavery  began.  It 
had  its  origin  in  the  request  of  the  people  of  Maine  and  Missouri  to 
have  those  Territories  erected  into  States.  Maine  had  hitherto  belonged 
to  Massachusetts,  but  the  people  desired  to  be  set  off  from  that  State, 


104  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

and  remained  an  independent  member  of  die  Union.  They  meant,  of 
course,  that  it  should  be  a  free  State,  and  they  inserted  in  the  constitu- 
tion which  they  adopted  a  clause  forever  forbidding  slavery.  To  admit 
Maine  as  a  State  would  therefore  increase  the  power  of  the  free  States 
in  Congress,  and  this  was  objected  to  by  the  slave  States  of  the  South. 
Then  there  came  a  request  from  the  people  of  Missouri  for  the  admis- 
sion of  that  Territory  as  a  State.  They  were  willing,  and,  in  fact, 
desirous,  that  it  should  be  a  slave  State.  After  a  long  controversy  in 
Congress  the  matter  was  finally  settled  by  the  adoption  of  what  has  ever 
since  been  known  as  the  Missouri  Compromise.  This  became  law  in 
1820.  Under  it  slavery  was  permitted  to  exist  in  Missouri  and  in  all 
Territories  south  of  the  line  of  36  degrees  30  minutes  north  latitude, 
but  all  territory  north  of  that  line  was  forever  to  be  kept  free  from 
slavery.  Under  this  agreement  Maine  was  admitted  as  a  State  in  1820, 
and  Missouri  was  similarly  admitted  in  1821. 

TREATIES  AND  CONTROVERSIES. 

During  Mr.  Monroe's  administration  a  new  treaty  was  concluded 
with  Great  Britain,  and  another  treaty  was  made  with  Russia.  At  the 
same  time  there  arose  the  beginning  of  what  was  destined  to  be  a  for- 
midable controversy  over  the  ownership  of  the  Oregon  Territory,  and 
the  way  was  opened  for  the  famous  war-cry  of  "Fifty-four  Forty  or 
Fight !  "  of  which  we  shall  hear  more  in  a  later  chapter. 

LAFAYETTE. 

The  year  1824  was  made  memorable  by  the  visit  to  this  country  of 
the  Marquis  de  Lafayette.  This  was  an  incident  of  great  interest  to 
the  whole  nation.  As  the  friend,  benefactor  and  ally  of  the  Americans 
during  the  Revolution,  he  was  remembered  with  lively  gratitude  after 
his  return  to  his  native  land,  and  his  subsequent  history  had  been  traced 
by  many  among  us  with  deep  concern,  as  well  as  admiration.  Nearly 
half  a  century  had  elapsed,  since  he  came  as  a  youthful,  devoted  adven- 
turer to  our  shores,  in  the  cause  of  freedom,  and  age  was  now  stealing 
over  him,  with  its  usual  effects  on  the  human  frame.  Before  the  close  of 
life,  he  wished  once  more  to  revisit  the  scenes  of  his  early  conflicts  ;  and, 
having  intimated  his  intention  of  coming  to  this  country,  the  people  were 
prepared  to  give  him  a  welcome  and  enthusiastic  reception. 


n 
> 


c 
w 

o 

H 

6 
c 
w 

50 

2 
5 

?o 


a: 


Q 

C 
2 

t/i 

H 

H 

C 


o 
z 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  I07 

He  landed  at  New  York,  on  the  i6th  of  August,  accompanied  by 
his  son,  and  jM.  L.  Vasseur,  his  secretary.  His  entrance  into  the  crty 
was  more  than  a  Roman  triumphal  procession.  Splendid  as  it  was,  it 
was  more  remarkable  as  the  tribute  of  the  concentrated  heart  ot 
America,  in  its  great  commercial  capital.  He  was  met  by  one  universal 
burst  of  grateful  enthusiasm. 

In  the  course  of  about  a  year,  he  visited  each  of  the  twenty-four 
States,  and  most  of  the  principal  cities  of  the  land,  and  was  everywhere 
received  with  the  like  spirit  of  enthusiasm  and  gratitude. 

He  was  present  on  the  occasion  of  laying  the  corner-stone  of  the 
Bunker  Hill  monument,  and  assisted,  as  was  most  befitting  he  should,  in 
laying  its  corner-stone.  His  presence  added  greatly  to  the  interest  of 
the  occasion,  and  long  will  it  be  remembered  with  what  enthusiasm  his 
presence  was  greeted. 

THE  PENSION  SYSTEM. 

In  1 81 8,  a  law  was  passed  by  Congress,  granting  pensions  to  the 
surviving  officers  and  soldiers  of  the  Revolutionary  War,  which  included 
all  who  had  served  nine  months  in  the  Continental  Army  at  any  period 
of  the  war,  provided  it  was  at  one  term  of  enlistment.  Another  act  of 
Congress,  following  at  the  expiration  of  two  years,  modified,  and,  in 
some  degree,  restricted  this  law,  by  confining  the  pension  to  those  who 
were  in  destitute  circumstances.  Still,  under  this  condition,  the  number 
who  received  the  bounty,  or,  rather,  the  justice  of  their  country,  was 
very  large,  not  less  than  13,000  having  experienced  the  grateful  relief. 
Through  the  inability  of  the  government,  soon  after  the  war,  these 
soldiers  who  had  so  largely  contributed  to  the  liberties  of  their  country 
had  never  been  duly  compensated.  They  now  received  a  welcome, 
thouo^h  late,  remuneration. 

REVISION  OF  THE  TARIFF 

A  law  was  passed  by  Congress,  on  the  subject  of  the  tariff,  in  May, 
1824,  embracing  the  revision  and  alteration  of  the  tariff  which  had  here- 
tofore existed.  Except  a  slight  protection  to  coarse  cotton  cloths,  noth- 
ing had  been  done  to  encourage  the  manufactures  of  the  country.  The 
attention  of  the  people  had  been,  for  a  long  time,  turned  towards  the 
subject,  and  Congress  had  debated  it  at  different  periods,  but  very  little 
had  been  effected.      Such  was  the  state  of  things  from    t8i6  to   1824. 


I08  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

On  the  part  of  many  citizens,  great  zeal  had  been  manifested  in  favor  of 
manufactures  among  us.  Numbers,  especially  in  the  Northern  and 
Eastern  States,  owing  to  the  impediments  which  existed  in  the  prosecu- 
tion of  commerce  and  navigation,  by  the  restrictive  measures  of  the 
government,  as  well  as  by  the  war,  had  engaged  in  the  business  of 
manufacturing.  By  their  energy,  perseverance,  and  economy,  they  had 
attained  to  a  measure  of  success  ;  but  still,  some  public  enactments  were 
wanting  to  give  due  encouragement  to  the  general  interests  of  manu- 
factures. 

RE-ELECTION  OF  MR.  MONROE. 

In  March,  1821,  Mr.  Monroe  entered  upon  his  second  term  of 
office,  having  been  re-elected  President  by  nearly  a  unanimous  vote. 
Mr.  Tompkins  was  also  continued  in  the  Vice-Presidency.  In  fact,  only 
one  electoral  vote  was  cast  against  Mr.  Monroe,  and  that  was  cast  by  a 
New  Hampshire  elector,  for  John  Ouincy  Adams.  The  elector  ex- 
plained that  he  really  favored  Mr.  Monroe's  re-election,  but  did  not  think 
it  fitting  that  any  man,  save  only  Washington,  should  have  a  unanimous 
vote.  It  being  understood  that,  according  to  the  example  of  his  pre- 
decessors, Mr.  Monroe  would  retire  at  the  expiration  of  his  second  term, 
the  subject  of  his  successor  was  early  introduced  to  the  nation.  Several 
candidates  were  put  in  nomination,  and  the  claims  of  each  were  duly 
urged  by  their  respective  friends  and  supporters. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


Treaty  of    Paris— Reaction   in    Europe— The    Manchester   Meeting— The 
Barbary  Pirates— Disquiet  in  France— Rebellion  in  Spain— Revolu- 
tion in  Portugal— Naples  and  Sicily— Revolution  in  Piedmont 
—Congress  at  Carlsbad— The  Greek   Revolution— Inde- 
pendence   Proclaimed  — Turkish    Atrocities  —  The 
Greek  Constitution— The  Destruction  of  Scio 
—  Marco   Bozzaris  —  Byron   at   Misso- 
longhi— The   Egyptian   Fleet  at 
Navarino. 


ON  the  day  of  the  signing  of  the  treaty  of  Paris,  another  was 
concluded  between  Russia,  Prussia,  Austria  and  England,  de- 
signed as  a  measure  of  security  for  the  allied  powers,  and 
declaring  that  Napoleon  Bonaparte  and  his  family  should  be 
forever  excluded  from  the  throne  of  France.  On  the  same  day  a  third 
treaty,  of  notorious  celebrity,  called  "The  Holy  Alliance,"  was  sub- 
scribed by  the  Emperors  of  Russia  and  Austria,  and  the  King  of  Prussia, 
who  bound  themselves,  "in  conformity  with  the  principles  of  Holy 
Scripture,  to  lend  each  other  aid,  assistance  and  succor,  on  every  occa- 
sion." This  treaty  was,  ere  long,  acceded  to  by  nearly  all  the  Conti- 
nental powers  as  parties  to  the  compact,  although  the  ruling  Prince  of 
England  declined  signing  it,  on  the  ground  that  the  English  Constitution 
prevented  him  from  becoming  a  party  to  any  convention  that  was  not 
countersigned  by  a  responsible  Minister. 

REACTION  IN  EUROPE. 

The  terms  of  the  Holy  Alliance  were  drawn  by  the  young  Russian 
Emperor,  Alexander,  whose  enthusiastic  benevolence  prompted  him  to 
devise  a  plan  of  a  common  international  law  that  should  substitute  the 
peaceful  reign  of  the  Gospel  in  place  of  the  rude  empire  of  the  sword. 
But  the  law  of  the  Holy  Alliance,  although  beneficent  in  its  origin,  was  tc 

109 


no  STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED   YEARS. 

be  interrupted  by  absolute  monarchs  ;  as  it  was  evident  that  its  only 
active  principle  would  be  the  maintenance  of  despotic  power,  under  the 
mask  of  piety  and  religion,  it  was  justly  regarded  with  dread  and  jealousy 
by  the  Liberal  party  throughout  Europe,  and  was,  in  reality,  made  a  con- 
venient pretext  for  enforcing  the  doctrine  of  passive  obedience  and  re- 
sisting all  efforts  for  the  establishment  of  constitutional  freedom. 

The  English  Government,  wiser  than  the  Continental  powers,  has 
ever  had  the  prudence  to  make  reasonable  concessions  to  reasonable 
popular  demands,  before  the  spark  of  discontent  has  been  blown  into 
the  blaze  of  revolution  ;  and  now,  after  a  spirited  contest,  a  heavy 
property  tax,  that  had  been  patiently  submitted  to  as  a  necessary  war 
measure,  was  repealed  amid  the  universal  transports  of  the  people  ;  the 
remission  of  other  taxes  followed,  and  in  one  year  a  reduction  of 
^35,000,000  sterling  was  made  from  the  national  expenditure,  although 
strongly  opposed  by  the  Ministry.  Still  the  distress  continued  ;  the 
popular  feeling  against  the  Government  increased  ;  numerous  secret 
political  societies  were  organized  among  the  dissatisfied  ;  and  early  in 
the  following  year  (18 17)  a  committee  of  Parliament  reported  that  an 
extensive  conspiracy  existed,  chiefly  in  the  great  towns  and  manufactur- 
ing districts,  for  the  overthrow  of  the  monarchy  and  the  establishment 
of  a  republic  in  its  stead. 

THE  MANCHESTER  MEETING. 

In  consequence  of  the  information,  greatly  exaggerated,  which  had 
been  communicated  to  the  committee.  Ministers  were  enabled  to  carry 
through  Parliament  bills  for  suspending  the  privileges  of  the  writ  of 
habeas  corpus,  and  for  suppressing  tumultuous  meetings,  debating 
societies  and  all  unlawful  organizations.  Armed  with  extensive  powers, 
the  Government  took  the  most  active  measures  for  putting  a  stop  to  the 
threatened  insurrection  ;  a  few  mobs  were  suppressed  ;  many  persons 
were  arrested  on  the  charee  of  hieh  treason  ;  and  several  were  convicted 
and  suffered  death.  In  18 19  a  large  and  peaceable  meeting  at  Man- 
chester, assembled  to  discuss  the  question  of  parliamentary  reforms,  was 
charged  by  the  militar)-,  and  many  lives  inhumanly  sacrificed  ;  but  all 
attempts  in  Parliament  for  an  inquiry  into  the  conduct  of  the  Manchester 
magistrates,  under  whose  orders  the  military  had  acted,  were  defeated. 
Although  the  people  still  justly  complained  of  grievous  burdens  of  tax- 


M 

I 

z 

> 

o 

M 
O 

•z. 

73 
M 
H 

M 

o 

70 
O 

s 

2 
O 
(/) 
n 
O 


2" 
w 

w 
< 

z 

o 


o 


a: 

w 
I 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  II3 

ation  and  unequal  representation  in  Parliament,  those  evils  were  not  so 
oppressive  as  to  induce  them  to  incur  the  hazards  of  revolution  ;  and  the 
Government,  having  yielded  to  the  point  where  danger  was  past,  was 
sufficiently  strong  to  carry  all  its  important  measures. 

The  illustrious  George  Canning  now  came  to  the  fore  in  English 
politics,  and  while  he  lived  exerted  a  salutary  influence  upon  them  in  the 
direction  of  progress,  freedom  and  human  rights  the  world  over. 

Early  in  1820  King  George  III,  of  England,  died  after  one  of  the 
longest  and  most  eventful  reigns  on  record,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son,  George  IV. 

THE  BARBARY  PIRATES. 

An  event  of  general  interest  that  occurred  soon  after  the  close  of 
the  European  war  was  the  merited  chastisement  of  the  piratical  State  of 
Algiers.  During  a  long  period  the  Barbary-  powers  had  carried  on 
piratical  warfare  against  those  nations  that  were  not  sufficiently  powerful 
to  prevent  or  punish  their  depredations.  From  the  year  1795  to  181 2 
the  United  States  of  America  had  preserved  peace  with  Algiers  by  the 
payment  of  an  annual  tribute  ;  but  in  the  latter  year  the  Dey,  believing 
that  the  war  with  England  would  prevent  their  commerce  in  the  Medi- 
terranean, commenced  a  piratical  warfare  against  all  American  vessels 
that  fell  in  the  way  of  his  cruisers.  In  the  month  of  June,  181 5,  an 
American  squadron,  under  the  command  of  Commodore  Decatur,  being 
sent  to  the  Mediterranean,  after  capturing  several  Algerian  vessels,  com- 
pelled Algiers,  Tripoli  and  Tunis  to  release  all  American  prisoners  in 
their  possession,  pay  large  sums  of  money,  and  relinquish  all  future 
claims  to  tribute  from  the  United  States. 

In  the  following  year  the  continued  piracies  of  Algerines  upon  some 
of  the  smaller  European  States  that  claimed  the  protection  of  England, 
induced  the  British  Government  to  send  out  a  powerful  squadron,  with 
directions  to  obtain  from  the  Dey  unqualified  abolition  of  Christian 
slavery,  or,  in  case  of  refusal,  to  destroy,  if  possible,  the  nest  of  pirates 
whose  tolerance  had  so  long  been  a  disgrace  to  Christendom.  On  the 
27th  of  August,  1816,  the  British  fleet,  commanded  by  Lord  E.xmouth, 
appeared  before  Algiers,  whose  fortifications,  admirably  constructed  and 
of  the  hardest  stone,  were  defended  by  nearly  500  cannons  and  40,000 
men.  No  answer  being  returned  to  the  demands  of  the  British  Govern- 
ment, the  attack  was  commenced  in  the  afternoon  of  the  same  day ;  and 

7 


114  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

although  the  defence  was  most  spirited,  by  ten  in  the  evening  all  the 
fortifications  that  defended  the  approaches  by  sea  were  totally  ruined, 
while  the  shot  and  shells  had  carried  destruction  and  death  throughout 
the  city.  On  the  following  morning  the  Dey  submitted,  agreeing  to 
abolish  Christian  slavery  forever,  and  immediately  restoring  1200  captives 
to  their  country  and  friends.  The  total  number  liberated  by  Algiers, 
Tripoli  and  Tunis  was  more  than  3000. 

The  humiliation  of  the  piratical  Barbary  powers  by  the  Americans 
in  18 1 5  and  the  battle  of  Algiers  in  the  following  year,  were  events 
highly  important  to  the  general  interests  of  humanity,  not  only  from  their 
immediate  results,  but  as  the  beginning  of  the  decisive  ascendancy  of 
the  Christian  over  the  Mohammedan  world. 

DISQUIET  IN  FRANCE. 

The  situation  of  France  at  the  second  restoration  of  Louis  XVIII, 
with  a  vast  foreign  army  quartered  upon  her  people,  an  empty  treasury, 
and  an  unsettled  government,  was  gloomy  in  the  extreme.  With  a 
vacillation  peculiar  to  the  French  people  public  opinion  had  already 
turned  against  the  Bonapartes  and  the  Republicans,  who  were  regarded 
as  the  authors  of  all  the  evils  which  the  nation  suffered  ;  and  the  King 
soon  found  himself  seriously  embarrassed  by  order  of  his  own  friends. 

The  year  1818  saw  the  Congress  of  the  great  Powers  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  and  the  final  withdrawal  of  the  foreign  armies  from  France.  In 
the  same  year  Bernadotte,  who  had  been  one  of  Napoleon's  marshals, 
became  King  of  Sweden  and  Norway.  The  Duke  of  Berry,  second  son 
of  the  future  King  Charles  X,  of  France,  was  assassinated  in  1820,  a 
serious  blow  to  the  Bourbon  dynasty. 

On  the  death  of  Louis  XVIII,  in  1824,  the  crown  of  France  fell  to 
his  brother,  Charles  X,  who  commenced  his  rule  by  a  declaration  of  his 
intentions  of  confirming  the  constitutional  charter  that  had  been  granted 
the  French  people  at  the  time  of  the  first  restoration.  But  the  new  King 
bitterly  opposed  to  the  principles  of  the  Revolution,  and  governed  by  the 
counsels  of  bigoted  priests,  labored  to  build  up  an  absolute  Monarchy, 
with  a  privileged  nobility  and  clergy  for  its  support ;  while,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  people,  persuaded  that  a  plot  was  formed  to  deprive  them  of 
their  constitutional  privileges,  talked  of  open  resistance  to  the  arbitrary 
commands  of  the  court. 


STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED   YEARS.  I  15 

REBELLION  IN  SPAIN. 

During  the  period  of  general  peace,  from  1815  to  1820,  Spain,  under 
the  rule  of  the  restored  Ferdinand,  was  in  a  state  of  constant  political 
agitation  ;  and  in  1820  an  insurrection  of  the  soldiery  compelled  the  King 
to  restore  to  his  subjects  the  free  and  almost  republican  constitution  of 
18 1 2.  The  Republicans,  however,  who  thus  obtained  the  direction  of 
the  Government,  showed  little  wisdom  or  moderation  ;  and  a  large  party, 
directed  by  the  monks  and  friars,  and  supported  by  the  lower  ranks  of 
the  populace,  was  formed  for  the  restoration  of  the  monarchy.  Several 
of  the  European  powers,  in  a  congress  held  at  Verona,  adopted  a  reso- 
lution to  support  the  authority  of  the  King  in  opposition  to  the  constitu- 
tion which  he  had  granted  ;  but  England  stood  aloof,  and  to  France  was 
entrusted  the  execution  of  the  odious  measure  of  suppressing  democratic 
principles  in  Spain. 

Accordingly,  early  in  the  year  1823,  a  French  army  of  a  100,000  men, 
under  the  command  of  the  Duke  d'Angouleme,  entered  Spain  ;  the 
patriots  made  a  feeble  resistance,  and  the  King  was  soon  restored  to 
absolute  authority  on  the  ruins  of  the  constitution.  The  remainder  oi 
the  reign  of  Ferdinand,  who  died  in  1833,  was  characterized  by  the  com- 
plete suppression  of  all  liberal  principles  in  politics  and  religion,  and  the 
revival  of  the  ancient  abuses  which  had  so  long  disgraced  the  Spanish 
monarchy.  England  and  the  United  States  severely  censured  the  inter- 
ference of  France  in  the  domestic  affairs  of  the  Spanish  nation,  showed 
their  sympathy  with  the  cause  of  the  oppressed  by  recognizing,  at  as 
early  a  period  as  possible,  the  independence  of  the  Spanish  South 
American  Republics,  which  had  recently  renounced  their  allegiance  to 
Spain. 

REVOLUTION  IN  PORTUGAU 

The  adjoining  kingdom  of  Portugal  was  a  prey  to  similar  commo- 
tions. The  emigration  of  the  King  and  court  to  Brazil  during  the 
Peninsular  war,  has  already  been  mentioned.  The  nation  being  dis- 
satisfied with  the  continued  residence  of  the  court  in  Brazil,  which,  in 
fact,  made  Portugal  a  dependency  of  the  latter,  and  desiring  some  funda- 
mental changes  in  the  form  of  government,  at  length,  in  August,  1820,  a 
revolution  broke  out,  and  a  free  constitution  was  soon  after  established, 
having  for  its  basis  the  abolition  of  privileges,  the  legal  equality  of  all 
classes,  the  freedom  of  the  press,  and  the  formation  of  a  representative 


Il6  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

body  in  the  national  legislature.  The  constitution,  being  violently 
opposed  by  the  clergy  and  privileged  classes,  who  formed  what  was 
called  the  Apostolical  party,  at  the  head  of  whom  was  Dom  Miguel,  the 
King's  younger  son,  was  suppressed  in  1823,  and  a  state  of  monarchy 
continued  until  the  death  of  the  King  in  1826,  when  the  crown  fell  to 
Dom  Pedro,  Emperor  of  Brazil. 

Dom  Pedro,  however,  resigned  his  right  in  favor  of  his  infant  daugh- 
ter. Donna  Maria,  at  the  same  time  granting  to  Portugal  a  constitutional 
charter,  and  appointing  his  brother,  Dom  Miguel,  Regent.  Although 
the  latter  took  an  oath  of  fidelity  to  the  charter,  he  soon  began  openly  to 
aspire  to  the  throne,  and  by  means  of  an  artful  priesthood,  caused  him- 
self, in  1829,  to  be  proclaimed  Sovereign  of  Portugal,  while  the  charter 
was  denounced  as  inconsistent  with  the  purity  of  the  Roman  faith.  The 
friends  of  the  charter,  aided  by  Dom  Pedro,  who  repaired  to  Europe  to 
assert  the  rights  of  his  daughter,  organized  a  resistance,  and  after  a  san- 
guinary struggle,  during  which  they  were  once  driven  into  exile,  they 
obtained  the  promise  of  support  from  France,  Spain  and  England,  who, 
in  1834,  entered  into  a  convention  to  expel  the  younger  brother  from  the 
Portuguese  territories.  Soon  after  Dom  Miguel  gave  up  his  pretensions, 
and  the  young  Queen  was  placed  upon  the  throne. 

NAPLES  AND  SICILY. 

The  kingdom  of  Naples,  embracing  Sicily  and  southern  Italy,  nearly 
identical  with  the  Magna  Graecia  of  antiquity,  had  been  erected  into  an 
independent  monarchy  in  1734,  under  the  Infanta  Don  Carlos,  of  Spain, 
who  took  the  name  of  Charles  III.  It  continued  under  a  succession  of 
tyrannical  and  imbecile  rulers  of  the  Bourbon  dynasty  till  1798.  The 
Italian  portion  of  the  kingdom  was  then  overrun  by  the  French,  who  held 
it  from  1803  to  18 15,  when  it  reverted  to  its  former  sovereign,  Ferdinand, 
who,  during  the  French  rule,  had  maintained  his  court  in  the  Sicilian  part 
of  the  kingdom. 

Under  the  rule  of  Ferdinand  popular  education  was  wholly 
neglected,  the  roads,  bridges  and  other  public  works  which  the  French 
had  either  planned  or  executed  were  left  unfinished  or  fell  into  decay, 
and  yet  the  people  were  oppressively  taxed,  and  a  representative  gov- 
ernment was  denied  them.  At  length,  on  the  2d  of  July,  1820,  the 
growing  discontents  of  the  people  broke  out  in  open  insurrection,  and 


STORY  OP  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  I17 

a  remonstrance  was  sent  to  the  Government  demanding  a  representative 
constitution.  One  based  on  the  Spanish  constitution  of  1812  was  imme- 
diately granted,  and  the  Neapohtan  parhament  was  opened  on  the  ist 
of  October  following ;  but,  on  the  same  month,  a  convention  of  the 
three  crowned  heads  who  formed  the  Holy  Alliance,  attended  by  minis- 
ters from  most  of  the  other  European  powers,  met  at  Laybach,  and  it 
was  there  resolved  by  the  sovereigns  of  Russia,  Austria  and  Prussia  to 
put  down  the  Neapolitan  constitution  by  force  of  arms. 

France  approved  the  measure,  but  the  British  Cabinet  remained 
neutral.  The  old  King  Ferdinand,  who  had  been  invited  to  visit  the 
sovereigns  at  Laybach,  was  easily  convinced  that  his  promises  had  been 
extorted,  and  therefore  were  not  binding,  and  Austrian  troops  imme- 
diately prepared  to  execute  the  resolutions  of  the  congress,  while  the 
aid  of  a  Russian  army  was  promised,  if  necessary.  An  Austrian  force 
of  43,000  men  entered  the  Neapolitan  territory,  heralded  by  a  procla- 
mation from  Ferdinand,  calling  his  subjects  to  receive  the  invaders  as 
friends.  A  few  slight  skirmishes  took  place,  but  the  country  was 
quickly  overrun,  foreign  troops  garrisoned  the  fortresses,  the  king's 
promise  of  complete  amnesty  was  forgotten,  and  courts-martial  and 
execution  closed  the  brief  drama  of  the  Neapolitan  revolution. 

REVOLUTION    IN    PIEDMONT. 

Piedmont  was  the  principal  province  of  the  Sardinian  monarchy, 
and  the  latter,  first  recognized  as  a  separate  kingdom  by  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht  in  1713,  comprised  the  whole  of  northern  Italy  west  ot  the  Tes- 
sino,  together  with  the  island  of  Sardinia  in  the  Mediterranean.  The 
Piedmontese,  never  considering  themselves  properly  as  Italians,  had 
been  proud  of  their  annexation  to  France  under  the  rule  of  Napoleon, 
and  on  the  restoration  of  the  monarchy  they  were  the  first  of  the  Sar- 
dinian people  to  exhibit  the  liberal  principles  of  the  French  Revolu- 
tionists and  to  complain  of  the  oppressive  exactions  imposed  upon  them 
by  the  Government. 

Scarcely  had  the  Neapolitan  revolution  been  suppressed,  when  an 
insurrection,  beginning  with  the  military,  broke  out  in  Piedmont.  On 
the  loth  of  March,  1821,  several  regiments  of  troops  simultaneously 
mutinied  ;  and  it  is  believed  that  the  malcontents  were  secretly  favored 
by  Charles  Albert,  a  kinsman  of  the  royal  family,  who  afterwards  became 


Il8  STORY    OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

king  of  Sardinia.  The  seizure  of  the  citadel  of  Turin,  on  the  12th,  was 
followed,  on  the  13th,  by  the  abdication  of  the  king,  Victor  Emanuel,  in 
favor  of  his  absent  brother,  Charles  Felix,  and  the  appointment  of  Prince 
Albert  as  regent.  While  efforts  were  made  to  organize  a  government, 
an  Austrian  army  was  assembled  in  Lombardy  to  put  down  the  revolu- 
tion ;  the  new  king  repudiated  the  acts  of  the  regent,  who  threw  him- 
self on  the  Austrians  for  protection  ;  on  the  8th  of  April  the  insurgents 
were  overthrown  in  battle,  and  on  the  loth  the  combined  royal  and  Aus- 
trian troops  were  in  possession  of  the  whole  country.  In  Piedmont,  as 
in  Naples,  Austrian  interference,  ever  exerted  on  the  side  of  tyranny, 
suppressed  every  germ  of  constitutional  freedom. 

CONGRESS  AT  CARLSBAD. 

The  famous  Congress  of  Carlsbad  was  held  in  181 9.  This  was 
composed  of  the  heads  of  the  various  German  States.  A  resolution 
was  adopted  directed  against  freedom  of  the  press  and  against  freedom 
of  teaching-  in  the  universities.  It  was,  in  a  measure,  a  counter-move- 
ment  against  the  patriotic  associations  of  students  which  had  been  formed 
a  few  years  before.  In  it,  too,  were  the  first  beginnings  of  the  German 
ZoUverein,  or  customs  union,  which  afterward  played  so  important  a  part 
in  leading  to  the  organization  of  the  new  German  Empire. 

THE  GREEK   REVOLUTION. 

In  the  year  1481,  Greece,  the  early  and  favored  seat  of  art,  science 
and  literature,  was  conquered  by  the  Turks,  after  a  sanguinary  contest 
of  more  than  forty  years.  The  Venetians,  however,  were  not  disposed 
to  allow  its  new  masters  quiet  possession  of  the  country,  and  during  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  it  was  the  theatre  of  obstinate  wars 
between  them  and  the  Turks,  which  continued  till  17 18,  when  the  Turks 
were  confirmed  in  their  conquest  by  treaty.  Although  the  Turks  and 
Greeks  never  became  one  nation,  and  the  relation  of  conquerors  and 
conquered  never  ceased,  yet  the  Turkish  rule  was  quietly  submitted  to 
until  182 1,  when,  according  to  previous  arrangements,  on  the  7th  of 
March,  Alexander  Ypsilanti,  a  Greek,  and  then  a  major-general  in  the 
Russian  army,  proclaimed,  from  Moldavia,  the  independence  of  Greece, 
at  the  same  time  assurring  his  countrymen  of  the  aid  of  Russia  in  the 
approaching  contest.      But  the  Russian  emperor  declined  intervention  ; 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  I  1 9 

the  Porte  took  the  most  rigorous  measures  against  the  Greeks,  and 
called  upon  all  Mussulmans  to  arm  against  the  rebels  for  the  protection 
of  Islamism  ;  the  wildest  fanaticism  raged  in  Constantinople,  where 
hundreds  of  the  resident  Greeks  were  remorselessly  murdered,  and  in 
Moldavia  the  bloody  struggle  was  terminated  with  the  annihilation  of  the 
patriot  army  and  the  flight  of  Ypsilanti  to  Trieste,  where  the  Austrian 
Government  seized  and  imprisoned  him. 

INDEPENDENCE   PROCLAIMED. 

In  southern  Greece  no  cruelties  could  quench  the  fire  of  liberty,  and 
sixteen  days  after  the  proclamation  of  Ypsilanti  the  Revolution  of  the 
Morea  began  at  Suda,  a  large  village  in  the  northern  part  of  Achaia, 
where  eighty  Turks  were  made  prisoners.  The  revolution  rapidly 
spread  over  the  Morea  and  the  islands  of  the  ^gean  ;  the  ancient 
names  were  revived  ;  and,  on  the  6th  of  April,  the  Messenian  Senate, 
assembled  at  Kalamatia,  proclaimed  .that  Greece  had  shaken  off  the 
Turkish  yoke  to  save  the  Christian  faith  and  restore  the  ancient  charac- 
ter of  the  country.  From  that  time  the  Greeks  found  friends  wherever 
free  principles  were  cherished  ;  and  from  England  and  the  United  States 
large  contributions  of  clothing  and  provisions  were  forwarded  to  relieve 
the  sufferings  inflicted  by  the  wanton  atrocities  of  the  Turks. 

TURKISH  ATROCITIES. 

During  the  summer  months  the  Turks  committed  great  depredations 
among  the  Greek  towns  on  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor ;  the  inhabitants  of 
the  island  of  Candia,  who  had  taken  no  part  in  the  insurrection,  were 
disarmed,  and  the  archbishops  and  many  of  the  priests  executed  ;  in 
Cyprus,  where  also  there  had  been  no  appearances  of  insurrection,  the 
Greeks  were  disarmed,  and  their  archbishop  and  other  prelates  mur- 
dered. The  most  barbarous  atrocities  were  also  committed  at  Rhodes 
and  other  islands  of  the  Grecian  Archipelago,  where  the  villages  were 
burned  and  the  country  desolated.  But  when,  in  August,  the  Greeks 
captured  the  strong  Turkish  fortresses  of  Monembasia  and  Navarino, 
and,  in  October,  that  of  Tripolitza,  they  took  a  terrible  revenge  upon 
their  enemies,  and  in  Tripolitza  alone  8000  Turks  were  put  to  death. 

On  the  5th  and  6th  of  September  the  Greek  General  Ulysses 
defeated,   near  the   pass  of  Thermopylae,   a   laige  Turkish   arm)-  which 


I20  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

had  advanced  from  Macedonia  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  peninsula 
of  Cassandra  was  taken  by  the  Turks,  when  3000  Greeks  were  put  to 
the  sword ;  women  and  children  were  carried  into  slavery,  and  the 
flourishing  peninsula  converted  into  a  desert  waste.  The  Athenian 
Acropolis  was  garrisoned  by  the  Turks,  and  the  inhabitants  of  Athens 
fled  to  Salamis  for  safety ;  but  in  general,  throughout  all  southern 
Greece,  the  Turks  were  driven  from  the  country  districts  and  com- 
pelled to  shut  themselves  up  in   the  cities. 

THE  GREEK  CONSTITUTION. 

The  year  1822  opened  with  the  assembling  of  the  first  Greek  Con- 
gress at  Epidaurus,  and  the  proclaiming  of  a  provisional  constitution  on 
the  13th  of  January.  On  the  27th  of  January,  1822,  the  independence  of 
the  country  was  proclaimed,  and  its  code  published  amid  the  joyful  accla- 
mations of  the  deputies,  the  army  and  the  people.  The  government 
was  for  the  present  styled  "  provincial,"  while  the  promulgation  of  the 
constitution  was  accompanied  with  an  address,  exhibiting  the  reasons 
for  shaking  off  the  Turkish  yoke.  Five  members  of  the  Congress  were 
nominated  as  an  executive,  and  Prince  Mavrocordato  was  appointed 
President.  Ministers  were  appointed  for  the  different  departments  of 
war,  finance,  public  instruction,  the  interior,  and  police  ;  and  a  commis- 
sion named  of  three  individuals  to  superintend  the  naval  affairs. 

The  new  Government  signalized  their  liberty  by  a  decree  for  the 
abolition  of  slavery,  as  well  as  the  sale  of  any  Turkish  prisoners  who 
might  fall  into  their  hands,  prohibiting  it  under  the  severest  penalties ; 
they  also  passed  another  edict  for  a  compensation  for  military  services, 
and  a  provision  for  the  widows  and  orphans  of  those  who  should  fall  in 
battle  ;  and  a  third,  regulating  the  internal  administration  of  the  prov- 
inces. The  organization  of  the  army  was  also  commenced  ;  a  corps, 
called  the  first  regiment  of  the  line,  was  formed  and  officered  from  the 
volunteers  of  the  different  nations,  and  as  there  were  more  of  them  than 
were  requisite  for  this  service,  a  second  was  formed  of  the  remainder, 
which  took  the  name  of  Philhellenes.  Patras  was  blockaded  again  by 
3000  men,  and  a  smaller  body  under  the  French  colonel,  Voutier,  was 
sent  to  Athens,  to  reduce  the  Acropolis  ;  the  forces  before  Napoli  were 
augmented,  and  Modon  and  Coron  closely  invested  by  the  armed  peas- 
antry around.     An  event,  the  most  terrific  and  atrocious  that  history  has 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  12  1 

ever  recorded,  marked  the  commencement  of  the  second  campaign :  the 
destruction  of  Scio  and  its  miserable  inhabitants.  The  Sciots  had  taken 
no  part  in  the  movement  of  1821.  In  the  beginning  of  May,  in  that 
year,  a  small  squadron  of  Ipsariots  appearing  off  the  coast,  furnished 
the  aga  with  a  pretext  for  his  oppressions,  and  he  began  by  seizing  forty 
of  the  elders  and  bishops,  who  were  immured  as  hostages  for  the  good 
conduct  of  the  people. 

THE  DESTRUCTION   OF  SCIO. 

"On  the  23d  of  April,"  says  Mr.  Blaquiere,  "a  fleet  of  fifty  sail, 
including  five  of  the  line,  anchored  in  the  bay,  and  immediately  began 
to  bombard  the  town,  while  several  thousand  troops  were  landed  under 
the  guns  of  the  citadel,  which  also  opened  a  heavy  fire  on  the  Greeks. 
It  was  in  vain  for  the  islanders  to  make  any  resistance  ;  deserted  by 
the  Samians,  most  of  whom  embarked  and  sailed  away  when  the  Turkish 
fleet  hove  in  sight,  they  were  easily  overpowered  and  obliged  to  fly. 
From  this  moment  until  the  last  direful  act,  Scio,  lately  so  great  an 
object  of  admiration  to  strangers,  presented  one  continued  scene  of 
horror  and  dismay.  Having  massacred  every  soul,  whether  men,  women 
or  children,  whom  they  found  in  the  town,  the  Turks  plundered  and  then 
set  fire  to  it,  and  watched  the  flames  until  not  a  house  was  left,  except 
those  of  the  foreign  consuls.  Three  days  had,  however,  been  suffered 
to  pass  before  the  infidels  ventured  to  penetrate  into  the  interior  of  the 
island,  and  even  then  their  excesses  were  confined  to  the  low  grounds. 
While  some  were  occupied  in  plundering  the  villas  of  rich  merchants, 
and  others  setting  fire  to  the  villages,  the  air  was  rent  with  the  mingled 
groans  of  men,  women  and  children,  who  were  falling  under  the  swords 
and  daggers  of  the  infidels.  The  only  exception  made  during  the  mas- 
sacre was  in  favor  of  young  women  and  boys,  who  were  preserved  to  be 
afterward  sold  as  slaves.  Many  of  the  former,  whose  husbands  had 
been  butchered,  were  running  to  and  fro  frantic,  with  torn  grarments  and 
dishevelled  hair,  pressing  their  trembling  infants  to  their  breasts,  and 
seekinor  death  as  a  relief  from  the  still  greater  calamities  that  awaited 
them.  About  40,000  of  both  sexes  had  already  either  fallen  victims  to 
the  sword,  or  been  selected  for  sale  in  the  bazaars,  when  it  occurred  to 
the  pacha  that  no  time  should  be  lost  in  persuading  those  who  had  fled  to 
the  more  inaccessible  parts  of  the  island,  to  lay  down  their  arms  and  sub- 


122  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

mit.  It  being-  impossible  to  effect  this  by  force,  they  had  recourse  to  a 
favorite  expedient  with  Mussuhnans  — that  of  proclaiming  an  amnesty. 
In  order  that  no  doubt  should  be  entertained  of  their  sincerity,  the 
foreign  consuls,  more  particularly  those  of  England,  France  and  Austria, 
were  called  upon  to  guarantee  the  promises  of  the  Turks  ;  they  accord- 
ingly went  forth  and  invited  the  unfortunate  peasantry  to  give  up  their 
arms  and  return.  Notwithstanding  their  long  experience  of  Turkish 
perfidy,  the  solemn  pledge  given  by  the  consuls  at  length  prevailed,  and 
many  thousands  who  might  have  successfully  resisted  until  succor  had 
arrived,  were  sacrificed  ;  for  no  sooner  did  they  descend  from  the  heights 
and  give  up  their  arms,  than  the  infidels,  totally  unmindful  of  the  prof- 
fered pardon,  put  them  to  death  without  mercy.  The  number  of  per- 
sons of  every  age  and  sex  who  became  the  victims  of  this  perfidious  act 
was  estimated  at  7000.  After  having  devoted  ten  days  to  the  work  of 
slaughter,  it  was  natural  to  suppose  that  the  monsters  who  directed  this 
frightful  tragedy  would  have  been  in  some  degree  satiated  by  the  blood 
of  so  many  innocent  victims  ;  but  it  was  when  the  excesses  had  begun  to 
diminish  on  the  part  of  the  soldiery  that  fresh  scenes  of  horror  were  ex- 
hibited on  board  the  fleet  and  in  the  citadel.  In  addition  to  the  women 
and  children  embarked  for  the  purpose  of  being  conveyed  to  the  markets 
of  Constantinople  and  Smyrna,  several  hundred  of  the  natives  were  also 
seized,  and  among  these,  all  the  gardeners  of  the  island,  who  were  sup- 
posed to  know  where  the  treasures  of  their  employers  had  been  con- 
cealed. There  were  no  less  than  500  of  the  persons  thus  collected  hung 
on  board  the  different  ships.  With  respect  to  the  number  who  were 
either  killed  or  consigned  to  slavery  during  the  three  weeks  that  followed 
the  arrival  of  the  capitan-pacha,  there  is  no  exaggeration  in  placing  the 
former  at  25,000  souls.  It  has  been  ascertained  that  above  30,000 
women  and  children  were  condemned  to  slavery,  while  the  fate  of  those 
who  escaped  was  scarcely  less  calamitous. 

MARCO  BOZZARIS. 

Marco  Bozzaris,  who  commanded  the  Greeks  at  Grionero,  fell  on 
the  Turks,  and  either  killed  or  captured  two-thirds  of  their  number. 
The  same  brave  leader  undertook  a  forced  march  against  Mustapha, 
who  had  14,000  men,  while  he  had  only  2000.  On  assigning  each  man's 
part  at  midnight  on  the  19th,  his  last  words  were  :  "If  you  lose  sight  of 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 


123 


me  during  the  combat,  seek  me  in  the  pacha's  tent."  On  his  arrival  at 
the  centre,  he  sounded  his  bugle,  as  agreed  upon,  and  the  enemy,  panic- 
struck,  fled  in  all  directions.  In  the  midst  of  the  attack,  which  was  now 
general,  he  was  twice  wounded,  and  at  last  carried  off  from  the  field 
expiring  ;  the  struggle,  however,  was  maintained  till  daylight,  when  the 
Greeks  were  victorious  on  all  points,  and  the  loss  of  the  enemy  was  not 
less  than  30CX). 

BYRON  AT  MISSOLONGHI. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  year  1824,  proclamation  was  issued 
by  the  President  and  Senate  of  the  United  States  of  the  Ionian  Islands, 
declaring  their  neutrality,  and  their  firm  resolution  not  to  take  any  part 
in  the  contest ;  also  prohibiting  any  foreigner  who  should  do  so  from 
residing  in  the  islands.  Among  the  Greeks  dissensions  still  prev-ailed, 
every  faction  following  its  own  plans  and  seeking  to  advance  its  own 
influence.  Mavrocordato,  Colocotroni  and  Ypsilanti  headed  different 
factions,  among  the  members  of  which  there  was  neither  unanimity  of 
counsel  nor  uniformity  of  action.  The  Turkish  fleet  sailed  on  the  23d 
of  April.  The  Greek  Senate  summoned  Colocotroni  to  surrender  him- 
self and  to  deliver  up  Napoli  and  Tripolizza,  but  he  refused  ;  the  troops 
that  were  investing  Patras  quarrelled  about  the  division  of  some  of  their 
booty,  and  were  withdrawn  ;  in  the  meantime  the  Turks  sailed  from 
Lepanto  with  fourteen  ships,  and  blockaded  Missolonghi.  In  order  to 
encourage  the  Greeks,  a  loan  of  about  ^800,000  was  contracted  for  in 
London.  About  this  period  Ispara  was  threatened  by  the  Turkish  fleet, 
which  was  now  at  Mitylene.  The  island  of  Caso  was  attacked  on  the 
8th  of  June  by  an  Egyptian  squadron,  and,  after  an  obstinate  resistance, 
was  taken  on  the  9th.  On  the  i8th  of  April,  this  year.  Lord  Byron  died 
at  Missolonghi  of  an  inflammatory  fever,  after  having  zealously  devoted 
himself  to  the  cause  of  the  Greeks  from  the  time  he  first  landed,  in 
August,  1823,  up  to  the  period  of  his  death. 

THE  EGYPTIAN  FLEET  AT  NAVARINO. 

Taking  advantage  of  an  insurrection  that  broke  out  on  the  Morea, 
at  the  head  of  which  were  Colocotroni  and  his  sons,  the  troops  of 
Mahomet  Ali,  pacha  of  Egypt,  were  directed  to  land  in  great  force 
there,  and  it  now  became   evident  that  the   neighborhood  of  Navarino 


124  storv  op  one  hundred  years. 

was  destined  to  be  the  seat  of  war.  On  the  ist  of  May  the  Egyptian 
fleet,  from  sixty-five  to  seventy  sail,  left  the  port  of  Suda,  where  it  had 
been  watched  by  a  Greek  squadron  under  Miaoulis,  who  now  sailed  to 
Navarino.  On  the  8th,  Miaoulis'  squadron,  amounting  to  twenty-two 
vessels,  was  near  Zante,  the  Egyptian  fleet,  forty-six  in  number,  being 
off  Sphacteria.  In  about  an  hour  from  2000  to  3000  troops  effected  a 
debarkation  from  the  Egyptian  fleet  on  the  island.  The  garrison  of 
Old  Navarino  capitulated  on  the  loth,  and  the  garrison  of  Navarino  on 
the  23d.  After  the  surrender  of  Sphacteria,  a  great  part  of  the  Egyp- 
tian fleet  was  followed  by  Miaoulis  into  the  harbor  of  Modon,  and  more 
than  half  of  it  destroyed  by  fire-ships.  In  the  end  of  May  the  Turkish 
admiral  left  the  Dardanelles,  and  on  the  ist  of  June  was  encountered 
by  the  Hydriote  Sakhturi,  who,  by  means  of  his  fire-ships,  destroyed 
three  men-of-war  and  some  transports.  Soon  after  the  capitan-pacha 
entered  Suda,  and  destroyed  the  Egyptian  fleet  from  Navarino.  The 
Greek  fleet  was  dispersed  by  a  tempest,  and,  having  no  fire  ships,  they 
retired  to  Hydra,  while  the  Turkish  admiral  landed  a  reinforcement  ot 
5000  men  at  Navarino,  and  went  to  Missolonghi  with  seven  frigates 
and  many  smaller  vessels.  The  siege  was  now  vigorously  pressed  ;  the 
lagune  was  penetrated  on  the  21st  of  July,  and  Anatolica,  an  island  on 
the  north,  surrendered  to  the  Turks.  The  supply  of  water  was  now  cut 
off,  batteries  had  been  erected  near  the  main  works  of  the  place,  the 
ramparts  had  been  injured  and  part  of  the  ditches  filled  up  ;  at  length  a 
o-eneral  attack  was  ordered  on  the  ist  of  August,  and  the  town  assailed 
in  four  places  at  once.  On  the  3d  the  Greek  fleet,  consisting  of  twenty- 
five  brigs,  attacked  and  destroyed  two  small  ships-of-war  and  all  the 
boats  in^the  lagune,  relieved  Missolonghi  and  obliged  the  enemy's  fleet 
to  retire.  On  the  loth  the  Greeks  attempted,  but  without  success,  to 
burn  the  Turkish  fleet  in  the  harbor  of  Alexandria.  On  the  20th  the 
fleet  of  the  Greeks,  about  thirty  sail,  commanded  by  Miaoulis,  engaged 
the  Turks  between  Zante,  Cephalonia  and  Chiarenza,  and  an  action 
ensued,  which  lasted  with  litde  intermission  for  two  days  and  nights,  till 
at  length  the  Greeks  were  obliged  to  retire. 

Other  incidents  of  the  years  under  consideration  were  the  death  of 
Pope  Pius  VII  and  the  accession  of  Pope  Leo  XII  in  1823,  the  outbreak 
of  the  first  British  war  in  Burmah  in  1824,  and  the  foundation  of  the 
British  Anti-Slavery  Society,  by  Wilberforce  and  others,  in  1823. 


CHAPTER  IX. 


Great  Britain  and  the  Indian  Empire — The  Mahratta  War — Obrenovitch, 

Prince  of  Servia — Revolutions  in  America — The  Triumph  of  Bolivar — 

The   Republic   of  Colombia — Three   Republics  Organized — Death 

of  Bolivar — Iturbide  in  Mexico — Treaty  of  Cordova — Iturbide 

Emperor — Fall  of  Iturbide — Liberia — "  Byron  is   Dead  " — 

Literature  and  Science — Trumbull's  Paintings — 

Steam  Navigation — Death  of  Decatur. 


THE  eight  years  during  which  James  Monroe  was  President  of  the 
United  States  were  years  of  exceptional   interest  in   the  general 
affairs  of  the  world.     In  the  preceding  chapter  we  have  traced  the 
progress  of  events  in  the  chief  States  of  Europe.     It  remains  to 
chronicle  doings  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  and  those  events  in  all  places 
which  do  not  properly  come   under  the  head    of  political  and   military 
history. 

THE  MAHRATTA  WAR. 

Great  Britain  was  at  this  time  engaged  in  extending  the  borders  of 
her  Indian  Empire.  The  Marquis  of  Hastings  was  Governor  General, 
and  administered  the  affairs  of  the  country  with  aggressive  ability. 
Trouble  arose  with  the  Pindarees,  a  tribe  of  freebootingr  horsemen. 
These  were  secretly  supported  and  encouraged  in  their  raids  by  the 
great  Mahratta  princes,  and  their  operations  kept  a  large  part  of  India 
in  a  state  of  unrest,  amounting  almost  to  civil  war.  Finally,  in  1817,  the 
British  Government  made  a  decided  movement  against  them  to  suppress 
them.  This  led  to  a  general  war  with  the  Mahratta  princes,  an  episode 
known  in  history  as  the  first  Mahratta  war.  It  was  a  severe  contest,  for 
the  Mahrattas  were  one  of  the  most  warlike  of  all  the  nations  of  Hindo- 
stan.  The  result  was  victory  for  the  British.  A  part  of  the  Mahratta 
territories  were  retained  by  the  conquerors,  and  the  remainder  restored 
to  the  native  princes.  The  latter  were,  however,  taken  under  British 
protection,  and  thus  practically  the  whole  of  Hindostan  came  directly  or 
indirectly   under  the   sway  of   the    British   Crown.      Lord   Hastings   re- 

125 


126  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

signed  his  post  in  1823,  leaving  British  India  in  a  proud  and  prosperous 
condition.  His  successor,  Lord  Amherst,  soon  became  involved  in  a  war 
with  Burmah,  in  1824.  The  conflict  lasted  two  years.  A  British  force 
penetrated  almost  to  Ava,  the  Burmese  capital,  and  the  King  was  glad 
to  purchase  peace  by  ceding  to  Great  Britain  the  provinces  of  Assam, 
Aracan  and  Tenasserim. 

OBRENOVITCH.  PRINCE  OF  SERVIA. 

The  affairs  of  the  Turkish  Empire  in  Europe  were  in  a  troublous 
condition.  In  Servia  the  revolution  of  Kara  George  was  ended  in  181 3, 
and  an  attempt  was  made  to  re-establish  Turkish  rule.  A  new  revolu- 
tion was,  however,  promptly  organized  by  Milosh  Obrenovitch,  a  swine- 
raiser,  and  in  18 17  he  was  formally  elected  Hereditary  Prince  of  Servia. 
His  title  was  not  recognized  by  Turkey,  and  years  of  war  followed.  In 
time,  however,  he  forced  the  Sultan  to  recognize  him  a  Prince  and  to 
grant  to  Servia  semi-independence.  Thus  was  established  the  Obreno- 
vitch dynasty,  to  which  the  present  King  of  Servia  belongs. 

In  this  same  year,  181 7,  Bolivar  established  a  Supreme  Council  in 
Venezuela,  and  assumed  the  chief  power,  practically  as  Dictator.  His 
operations  leading  to  the  independence  of  Venezuela  are  more  fully 
detailed  elsewhere  in  this  volume. 

We  may  also  note  in  passing  the  great  Wartburg  Festival  of  the 
German  Students'  Patriotic  Association,  and  the  formation  of  the  United 
Evangelical  Church  in  Prussia,  through  a  union  of  the  Lutheran  and 
Calvinistic  Churches;  two  incidents  of  181 7  fraught  with  much  interest 
in  the  subsequent  development  of  the  German  nation. 

REVOLUTIONS  IN  AMERICA. 

The  revolutions  in  Central  and  South  America  against  Spanish  rule 
made  steady  progress.  The  year  18 18  is  reckoned  the  date  of  Chilian 
independence,  the  important  battle  of  Maypu  marking  the  final  triumph 
of  Chilian  arms  and  the  practical  liberation  of  the  country.  The  three 
chief  actors  in  the  drama  of  Chilian  liberation  were  General  San  Martin, 
the  Dictator  Bernard  O'Higgins,  and  Admiral  Cochrane,  the  illustrious 
British  commander. 

We  have  elsewhere  related  that  the  royal  family  of  Portugal,  in  1806, 
sought  refuge  in  Brazil.     In  181 7  a  revolution  broke  out  in  Pernambuco, 


STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS.  llj 

which  failed.  But  the  Portuguese  King  thereupon  granted  a  free  constitu- 
tion and  returned  to  Europe.  On  October  22,  1822,  the  Prince-regent, 
Dom  Pedro,  was  proclaimed  constitutional  Emperor  of  Brazil,  and  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  country  was  soon  recognized  by  Portugal.  The  inde- 
pendence of  the  United  Provinces  of  La  Plata  was  similarly  recognized 
by  Portugal  in  1821,  and  thus  the  Argentine  Republic  came  into  exist- 
ence. The  independence  of  Peru  was  formally  proclaimed  in  1821.  In 
1824  Bolivia  was  detached  from  Peru  and  formed  into  a  separate  State. 

THE  TRIUMPH  OF  BOLIVAR. 

We  have  hitherto  recounted  the  chief  incidents  of  Bolivar's  cam- 
paign in  Venezuela  and  Colombia  down  to  the  spring  of  181 7.  In  18 19 
the  Congress  of  Venezuela  assembled  at  Angostura,  and  Bolivar  sur- 
rendered into  the  hands  all  the  powers  he  had  been  exercising  as  Dic- 
tator. The  Congress,  however,  required  him  to  resume  supreme  power 
and  exercise  it  until  the  independence  of  the  country  should  be  fully 
established.  He  then  re-organized  his  army  and  set  out  across  the 
Andes  to  effect  a  junction  with  General  Santander,  who  commanded  the 
revolutionists  in  New  Grenada.  In  July,  1819,  he  reached  Tunja,  where 
he  defeated  the  Royalist  troops  and  captured  the  city.  On  August  7th 
the  Spanish  army,  under  the  Viceroy,  Samano,  advanced  to  meet  him  at 
Bojaca,  where  a  severe  battle  was  fought,  which  resulted  in  the  complete 
victory  of  the  revolutionists.  The  Viceroy  fled  from  the  field  of  battle, 
and  the  whole  Province  of  New  Grenada  was  conquered  by  this  victory. 
Bolivar  entered  the  capital  in  triumph,  and  was  appointed  President  and 
Captain-General  of  the  republic. 

Having  amply  recruited  his  army  he  returned  to  Venezuela,  where, 
on  the  17th  of  December,  18 19,  a  union  between  the  two  republics  was 
decreed  by  the  congress  through  his  influence.  He  then  took  the  field  at 
the  head  of  the  strongest  army  that  had  yet  been  collected  by  the 
patriots.  The  Spaniards,  after  many  defeats,  agreed  to  an  armistice  of 
six  months,  in  November,  1820.  Morillo,  their  General,  returned  to 
Spain,  leaving  his  army  under  the  command  of  La  Torre.  At  the  termi- 
nation of  the  armistice  the  two  armies  resumed  active  operations ;  and. 
on  the  23d  of  June,  was  fought  the  decisive  battle  of  Carobobo  ;  the 
Spaniards,  under  La  Torre,  were  entirely  defeated,  and  their  broken  and 
scattered  forces   saved  themselves  by  fleeing  to  Puerto  Cabello.     This 


128  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

victory  was  the  finishing  stroke  to  the  war  in  Venezuela  ;  by  the  end  of 
the  year  the  Spaniards  were  driven  from  every  part  of  Venezuela  and 
New  Grenada,  except  Puerto  Cabello  and  Quito. 

THE  REPUBLIC  OF  COLOMBIA. 

The  two  provinces  were  now  united  into  one  State,  called  the 
Republic  of  Colombia.  The  installation  of  the  first  general  congress 
took  place  on  the  6th  of  May,  182  i,  at  Rosario  de  Cucuta.  A  Constitu- 
tion was  adopted  on  the  30th  of  August.  Bolivar  was  appointed  Presi- 
dent, and  Santander  Vice-President.  Puerto  Cabello  surrendered  in 
December,  1823,  and  all  the  Spanish  forces  had  been  expelled  from  the 
southern  part  of  the  republic  before  this  period  ;  so  that,  at  the  beginning 
of  1824,  the  Republic  of  Colombia  was  totally  freed  from  foreign 
enemies. 

But  at  the  moment  when  affairs  seemed  most  prosperous,  the  re- 
public began  to  be  disturbed  with  civil  records.  General  Paez,  a  mulatto, 
and  one  of  the  most  distinguished  officers  of  the  revolution,  had  received 
the  command  of  the  department  of  Venezuela.  In  the  execution  of  a  law 
for  enrollingf  the  militia  of  Caracas,  he  rave  so  much  offence  to  the  in- 
habitants  by  his  arbitrary  conduct,  that  they  obtained  an  impeachment 
against  him  before  the  Senate.  Being  notified  of  this  in  April,  1826,  and 
summoned  to  appear  and  take  his  trial,  he  refused  to  obey,  but  placed 
himself  at  the  head  of  his  troops,  and  called  around  him  all  the  disaffected 
persons  in  Venezuela,  who  formed  a  very  strong  party.  These  persons 
objected  to  the  central  government ;  some  of  them  wishing  for  a  federal 
system  like  that  of  the  United  States,  and  others  desiring  a  total  separa- 
tion from  New  Grenada.  Various  disorders  broke  out  in  other  parts  of 
the  republic,  and  a  great  portion  of  the  country  refused  obedience  to  the 
Colombian  Constitution.  An  attempt  was  made  to  accommodate  matters 
by  a  convention  at  Ocana,  for  amending  the  constitution,  in  March,  1828, 
but  the  violence  of  parties  and  the  disturbeo  state  of  the  country  pre- 
vented the  convention  from  doing  anything,  and  they  soon  separated. 

THREE  REPUBLICS  ORGANIZED. 

Affairs  now  came  to  a  crisis  ;  the  country  was  threatened  with 
anarchy,  and  Bolivar  took  a  bold  and  decisive  step,  by  dissolving  the 
Colombian  Congress,  on  the  27th  of  August,  1828,  and  assuming  abso- 


OS 

I 

K 

a 
o 
z 

o 

G 

o 

X 

c 
5 

H 

2 

O 

"H 
W 

c 
c 
z 


> 
H 
H 

r 
o 


> 
r. 

K 

n 
X 
> 

r 
> 


< 

m 
J 
w 

o 

u, 

O 
g 

H 
M 

Z 

o 

J 
o 

CL, 

< 

z 

I 


STORV  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  I3I 

lute  authority.  This  act  was  preceded  by  addresses  from  various  muni- 
cipal bodies,  calling  upon  Bolivar  to  put  an  end  to  the  public  disorders 
by  assuming  the  supreme  command.  Whether  these  addresses  were 
procured  by  his  intrigues,  in  order  to  give  a  plausible  color  to  his  usur- 
pation, we  have  no  means  of  knowing.  He  organized  a  new  government 
to  suit  his  own  views,  and  soon  began  to  feel  the  consequences  of  the 
bold  step  he  had  taken,  in  the  conspiracies  that  were  plotted  against  him. 
On  the  15th  of  September,  1828,  an  attempt  was  made  to  assassinate  him. 
His  aid-de-camp  was  killed,  but  Bolivar's  life  was  saved  by  the  courage 
of  his  officers.  Generals  Padilla  and  Santander  were  chargred  with  this 
plot,  and  condemned  to  death  by  a  special  tribunal.  Padilla  was  exe- 
cuted, but  the  punishment  of  Santander  was  commuted  for  banishment. 
Various  others  suffered  death.  The  country  was  more  and  more  agitated 
by  violent  factions  ;  many  military  leaders  aspired  to  the  supreme  com- 
mand, and  the  efforts  of  Bolivar  to  prevent  dissension  excited  insurrec- 
tions. Bolivar  was  denounced  as  a  usurper  and  a  tyrant.  Venezuela 
claimed  her  independence,  and  Bolivar,  finding  it  impossible  to  unite  the 
factions  and  create  a  spirit  of  harmony  under  his  rule,  resigned  all  his 
authority  to  the  congress  at  Bogota,  in  1830.  He  retired  to  Carthagena, 
dispirited  and  broken  down  by  the  calamities  of  his  country.  Bolivar's 
retirement  from  public  life  removed  every  obstacle  to  the  division  of  the 
Republic  of  Colombia.  In  1831  it  was  formed  into  three  independent 
States — Venezuela,  New  Grenada  and  Ecuador — which  have  continued 
to  the  present  day. 

DEATH  OF  BOLIVAR. 

On  the  17th  of  December,  1831,  Bolivar  died  at  San  Pedro,  near 
Carthagena,  at  the  age  of  forty-eight.  He  was,  by  far,  the  most  cele- 
brated of  all  the  South  American  revolutionary  leaders  ;  and  during  many 
years  was  considered  the  "Washington  of  the  South."  Yet,  notwith- 
standing his  brilliant  successes,  he  outlived  both  his  power  and  his  repu- 
tation. At  the  period  of  his  death  he  had  lost  all  influence  over  his 
countrymen,  and  he  died  tainted  with  the  suspicion  of  having  engaged 
in  an  intrigue  for  introducing  foreign  aid  to  restore  monarchy  in 
Colombia. 

ITURBIDE   IN   MEXICO. 

The    estab'ishment    of  a   constitution    in    Spain    in    1820  suddenly 
changed  the  course  of  affairs  in   Mexico.     The  European  Spaniards  and 
8 


132  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

the  Creoles,  who  had  before  made  common  cause  in  the  royal  interest, 
now  divided  into  two  parties,  royalists  and  constitutionalists.  The  Vice- 
roy, Apodaca,  was  a  royalist,  and  wished  to  suppress  all  attempts  to 
establish  a  constitution  in  Mexico.  The  cause  of  the  insurgents  received 
new  strength  from  the  Spanish  and  Mexican  constitutionalists,  and  the 
insurrection  again  looked  threatening.  Apodaca  raised  a  small  army 
and  despatched  it  to  crush  the  remnant  of  the  insurgent  forces.  He 
gave  the  command  to  Don  Augustin  Iturbide,  a  Creole,  but  a  royalist, 
and  an  officer  who  had  distinguished  himself  in  the  war  against  the  inde- 
pendents. It  is  supposed  that  at  this  moment  Iturbide  began  to  enter- 
tain those  designs  of  self-aggrandizement  which  afterwards  led  him  to  the 
throne  of  Mexico.  His  very  first  steps  exhibited  art  and  dissimulation. 
The  priests  and  Europeans  furnished  him  with  some  money,  and  on  his 
march  he  seized  on  a  convoy  of  specie  belonging  to  the  Manila  mer- 
chants. He  formed  a  junction  with  Guerrero,  one  of  the  patriot  chiefs, 
and  had  the  address  to  persuade  Apodaca  that  it  was  only  an  act  of  par- 
don by  which  the  adherents  of  the  revolution  would  be  brought  over  to 
the  royal  cause.  Emissaries  in  the  meantime  were  despatched  to  every 
part  of  the  country,  and  they  executed  their  mission  so  ably  that  the  in- 
habitants were  everywhere  ready  to  declare  in  favor  of  independence. 

On  the  24th  of  February,  1821,  at  the  litde  town  of  Iguala,  on  the 
road  from  Mexico  to  Acapulco,  Iturbide  issued  a  proclamation,  which  has 
since  been  known  by  the  name  of  the  "  Plan  of  Iguala."  Its  professed 
object  was  to  conciliate  all  parties  ;  to  establish  the  independence  of 
Mexico,  and  still  to  preserve  its  relationship  to  Spain.  To  accomplish 
this,  the  crown  of  Mexico  was  to  be  offered  to  the  King  of  Spain  ;  and 
in  case  of  his  refusal,  to  one  of  his  brothers,  on  condition  of  his  residing 
in  the  country.  Though  Iturbide  had  manifestly  exceeded  the  powers 
which  he  had  received  from  his  superior,  yet  the  Viceroy,  thunderstruck 
at  this  unexpected  event,  and  seeing  that  the  proposal  met  the  wishes  of 
a  great  majority  of  the  people,  took  no  decisive  steps  against  him.  The 
royalists,  who  were  numerous  in  the  capital,  alarmed  at  this  indecision 
and  delay  of  Apodaca,  instantly  deposed  him,  and  placed  Don  Francisco 
Novello,  an  artillery  officer,  at  the  head  of  affairs.  But  the  disorders  in- 
separable from  such  violent  changes  gave  Iturbide  time  to  augment  his 
forces,  strengthen  his  party,  and  gain  all  the  northern  and  western  prov- 
inces.     Before  the  month   of  July  the   whole   country  acknowledged  his 


STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS.  1 33 

authority  with  the  exception   of  the  capital,  in  which  Novello  had  shut 
himself  up  with  all  the  European  troops. 

TREATY  OF  CORDOVA. 

In  this  state  of  things  General  O'Donoju  arrived  at  Vera  Cruz  from 
Spain,  with  the  office  of  constitutional  Viceroy.  Iturbide  hastened  to  the 
coast,  held  an  interview  with  the  new  functionary,  and  persuaded  him  to 
accept  the  plan  of  Iguala  as  an  armistice  and  final  setttement,  with  the 
proviso  that  it  should  be  approved  by  Spain.  This  agreement  was  called 
the  Treaty  of  Cordova,  from  the  town  where  it  was  made.  It  provided 
that  commissioners  should  be  sent  to  Spain  with  the  offer  of  the  crown, 
and  that  in  the  interim  a  governing  junta  and  a  regency  should  be  ap- 
pointed ;  and  that  a  cortes  should  be  immediately  convened  to  form  a 
constitution.  The  royalists  were  deeply  chagrined  at  this  proceeding, 
and  the  garrison  at  Mexico  refused  to  obey  O'Donoju,  when  he  ordered 
them  to  evacuate  the  city.  Iturbide  obtained  possession  of  Mexico  by 
capitulation,  and  established  ajunta  and  regency,  but  in  such  a  form  that 
all  the  power  remained  in  his  hands.  A  cortes  was  summoned,  which 
met  on  the  24th  of  February,  1822,  and  soon  found  themselves  divided 
into  three  parties — the  Bourbonists,  or  friends  of  the  plan  of  Iguala  ;  the 
Republicans  ;  and  the  partisans  of  Iturbide,  who  wished  to  elevate  him 
to  the  supreme  power.  Amidst  all  this  dissension  Iturbide  had  little  dif- 
ficulty in  playing  off  one  party  against  another  in  such  a  manner  that  no 
effectual  opposition  could  be  thrown  in  the  way  of  his  ambitious  schemes. 
An  accident  helped  him  onward.  The  royalist  garrison  of  Mexico, 
which  had  capitulated  and  were  now  encamped  at  Toluca,  entered  into  a 
conspiracy  to  effect  a  counter-revolution.  Iturbide  detected  the  con- 
spiracy and  seized  this  occasion  to  withdraw  from  the  capital  all  the 
troops  disaffected  to  his  cause. 

ITURBIDE   EMPEROR. 

Meantime  his  emissaries  were  at  work  intriguing  in  the  army,  and 
on  the  evening  of  the  18th  of  May  they  assembled  the  soldiers,  ha- 
rangued them,  and  distributed  money  among  them.  The  soldiers 
marched  out  of  their  quarters,  drew  up  in  front  of  Iturbide's  house, 
where  they  were  joined  by  a  mob  of  the  lowest  class  of  people.  At 
10  o'clock  in  the  evenmcr  this   multitude   be^ran   their  shouts  of  "  Lons: 


134  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

live  Iturbide,  Augustin  the  First.  Emperor  of  Mexico  !  "  These  cries, 
with  .salvos  of  fire-arms,  continued  till  morning,  and  the  members  of  the 
cortes  unfriendly  to  Iturbide's  ambitious  views  were  advised,  from  a  pre- 
tended regard  for  their  safety,  not  to  attend  the  meeting  that  day  for  fear 
of  the  soldiery.  Forty  members  absented  themselves  in  consequence, 
and  the  Cortes  having  assembled,  amidst  the  shouts  of  the  soldiery  and 
the  mob,  Iturbide  was  proclaimed  Emperor.  Most  of  the  provinces  sub- 
mitted to  this  usurpation  without  delay  or  complaint. 

Thus,  in  a  short  career  of  little  more  than  two  years,  an  obscure  in- 
dividual was  enabled  to  seat  himself  on  a  throne.  But  his  downfall  was 
as  rapid  as  his  rise.  Dissensions  soon  broke  out  between  him  and  the 
cortes,  to  which  he  put  an  end  by  dissolving  that  body  on  the  30th  of 
October,  1822,  precisely  as  Cromwell  dismissed  the  Long  Parliament, 
and  Bonaparte  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  Iturbide,  however,  possessed 
very  little  of  the  genius  of  these  great  leaders.  He  was  unable  to  rec- 
oncile the  officers  of  the  army,  or  the  men  of  influence  in  the  country,  to 
these  daring  measures.  He  formed  a  new  legislative  assembly,  com- 
posed of  persons  favorable  to  his  views,  but  they  had  not  the  skill  to 
make  his  cause  popular.  Several  of  the  chief  officers  of  the  army  de- 
clared against  him,  and  prepared  for  resistance.  Iturbide  began  to  be 
terrified  at  the  storm  which  he  saw  gathering  against  him  on  all  sides. 
General  Santa  Anna,  who  had  assisted  in  elevating  him  to  the  throne, 
took  up  arms  against  him.  Guadalupe  Victoria  joined  his  forces  to 
those  of  Santa  Anna.  The  provinces  fell  off  from  the  Emperor,  and  at 
length  Iturbide,  utterly  despairing  of  his  fortunes,  convoked  the  old 
cortes  on  the  8th  of  March,  1823,  and  on  the  19th  of  that  month 
abdicated  his  crown. 

FALL  OF  ITURBIDE. 

Thus,  after  a  troubled  and  disastrous  reign  of  ten  months,  his 
Imperial  Majesty  of  Mexico  and  Anahuac  reluctantly  threw  down  his 
sceptre.  He  was  permitted  to  leave  the  country  and  reside  in  Italy, 
with  a  pension  of  $25,000.  His  exile,  however,  did  not  restore  tran- 
quillity to  the  countr)-.  The  struggles  of  opposing  factions  kept  every- 
thing in  confusion,  and  Iturbide,  before  the  end  of  a  year,  miscalculat- 
'ing  his  influence  over  his  countrymen,  had  the  presumption  to  imagine 
that  he  could  re-enact  the  drama  of  Napoleon's  return  from  Elba,  and 
regain  his  throne  by  merely  showing  himself  in   Mexico.     Accordingly, 


I 

c 

Z 


z 

c 

c 
z 


> 


> 
z 


r  Ml- "**"     --r    ^^ 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  1 37 

embarking  with  his  family  and  two  or  three  attendants,  he  landed  in 
Mexico  on  the  12th  of  July,  1824.  On  attempting  to  proceed  into  the 
interior  in  disguise,  he  was  discovered  and  arrested.  The  Government 
had  previously  outlawed  him,  and  he  was  shot  by  order  of  the  local 
authorities  at  Padilla,  in  Tamaulipas,  on  the  19th  of  July. 

In  the  meantime  the  neichborinor  States  of  Central  America  followed 
the  example  of  the  rest  of  Spanish  America,  and  in  1821  declared  their 
independence.  Two  years  later  Guatemala,  Salvador,  Honduras,  Nica- 
ragua and  Costa  Rica  formed  themselves  into  the  Federal  Republic  of 
Central  America.  This  organization  did  not  last  many  years,  and  the 
five  States  in  time  became  independent  of  each  other,  as  at  the 
present  time. 

LIBERIA. 

The  year  1822  saw  the  creation  of  a  new  State  among  the  inde- 
pendent nations  of  the  world.  This  was  Liberia,  a  negro  republic, 
based  on  the  model  of  the  United  States.  It  was  organized  by  the 
American  Colonization  Society,  a  society  which  sought  to  solve  the 
slavery  question  by  returning  the  negroes  to  Africa.  The  site  of  the 
new  State  does  not  seem  to  have  been  well  chosen,  being  intensely 
hot  and  not  salubrious.  Nevertheless,  a  considerable  colony  was  planted 
there,  and  a  civil  government  established.  In  spite  of  many  drawbacks, 
and  the  more  or  less  open  hostility  of  some  European  powers,  the 
little  State  has  maintained  its  independence  to  the  present  time,  and  has 
had  on  the  whole  a  creditable  record. 

In  connection  with  Africa,  we  may  mention  the  discover)^  of  Lake 
Chad,  which  was  effected  in  1823  by  the  British  expedition  of  Denham 
and  Clapperton. 

•■  BYRON  IS  DEAD." 

The  death  of  Lord  Byron  at  Missolonghi  has  already  been  men- 
tioned in  these  pages.  It  occurred  on  April  19,  1824.  It  was  an  irre- 
parable loss  to  the  world's  literature,  for  in  that  tragedy  perished  the 
greatest  poet  since  Shakespeare.  It  is  related  that  on  hearing  the  news 
Alfred  Tennyson,  already  a  youth  of  high  promise,  went  out  into  the 
fields  and  wrote  upon  a  large  stone  the  words  "  Byron  is  dead  !"  and 
remained  for  hours  musing  over  the  fact  is  speechless  grief. 

The  progress  of  literature  and  science  in  these  times  was  marked 
in    18 1 7   by  the  publication   of  Cuvier's   "Animal    Kingdom,"  a  monu- 


138  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

mental  work  which  practically  marked  the  foundation  of  the  science  of 
comparative  anatomy  and  gave  the  greatest  conceivable  impetus  to  fur- 
ther research  and  achievement  in  the  domain  of  natural  history. 

In  the  following  year,  181 8,  the  great  University  of  Bonn,  in 
Rhenish  Prussia,  was  founded,  an  institution  soon  distinguished  by  the 
teachings  of  such  scholars  as  Niebuhr,  Schlegel  and  their  compeers,  and 
which  now  ranks  among  the  foremost  universities  of  the  world. 

LITERATURE  AND  SCIENCE. 

Sir  Walter  Scott,  whose  advent  in  the  domain  of  poetry  has  already 
been  recorded,  published  his  "  Ivanhoe  "  in  1819,  and  thus  indisputably 
established  his  title  as  the  oreatest  romance  writer  of  the  ag-e. 

The  year  1819  was  made  memorable  in  the  scientific  world  by  a 
fundamental  discovery  in  electricity.  In  that  year  Oersted,  a  professor 
in  the  University  of  Copenhagen,  after  a  long  and  patient  series  of 
experiments  and  investigations,  convincingly  announced  to  the  world 
his  discovery  of  the  unity  between  electricity  and  magnetism. 

Between  the  years  18 17  and  1825  the  Count  de  Saint-Simon  pub- 
lished the  noteworthy  series  of  religious,  philosophical  and  industrial 
treatises  which  marked  him  as  the  founder  of  the  French  school  of 
Socialism. 

About  this  time  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  scientific  theories 
was  put  forth  and  obtained  for  a  time  a  considerable  number  of  enthu- 
siastic believers.  This  was  the  theory  of  Captain  Symmes  that  the  earth 
was  hollow  and  its  interior  probably  inhabited,  and  that  entrance  was 
to  be  had  to  the  interior  through  a  large  aperture  at  the  North  Pole. 
Serious  endeavors  were  actually  made  to  send  a  scientific  expedition  to 
the  Arctic  regions  to  ascertain  the  truth  of  this  theory,  but,  of  course, 
nothing  practical  ever  came  of  it. 

TRUMBULL'S  PAINTINGS. 

American  progress  in  the  fine  arts  was  splendidly  exemplified 
between  1815  and  1822  by  the  completion  of  Trumbull's  paintings  in 
the  dome  of  the  Capitol  at  Washington.  John  T.  Trumbull,  of  Con- 
necticut, was  a  son  of  the  famous  Governor  Jonathan  Trumbull,  of  that 
State.  Having  assured  his  rank  among  the  foremost  painters  of  the 
day,  he  conceived  the  splendid  project  of  adorning  the   dome  of  the 


STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS.  1 39 

Capitol  with  a  series  of  four  colossal  illustrations  of  notable  scenes  in 
American  history.  These  he  completed  in  a  manner  that  has  secured 
for  him  lasting  fame.  The  four  paintings  represent,  respectively,  "The 
Signing  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,"  "The  Surrender  of 
General  Burgoyne,"  "The  Surrender  of  Lord  Cornwallis  "  and  "Wash- 
ington's Resignation  of  his  Commission  at  Annapolis." 

In  these  same  years  the  art  of  lithography,  which  had  been  founded 
by  Senefelder  in  1796,  was  first  practiced  with  success  in  the  United 
States,  and  made  rapid  progress. 

STEAM    NAVIGATION. 

Ws  have  already  spoken  of  Fulton's  invention  of  the  steamboat. 
In  the  year  1819  the  first  steam-propelled  vessel  crossed  the  Atlantic 
Ocean.  This  was  the  steamer  "Savannah,"  which  made  the  voyage 
from  Savannah  to  Liverpool  in  twenty-two  days,  and  from  Liverpool 
proceeded  to  Russia.  A  little  later  the  first  steamship  line  from  New 
York  to  New  Orleans  was  established,  and  thereafter  steam  navigation, 
both  coastwise  and  trans-oceanic,  was  rapidly  developed. 

DEATH   OF   DECATUR. 

A  tragic  incident  of  national  importance  must  at  this  point  be 
noted.  We  have  hitherto  spoken  of  the  gallant  and  renowned  exploits 
of  Commodore  Stephen  Decatur  in  the  war  with  the  Barbary  pirates. 
This  distinguished  officer,  one  of  the  naval  heroes  of  the  age,  became 
involved  in  a  dispute  with  his  brother  ofificer.  Commodore  James  Barron, 
which,  according  to  the  barbarous  code  of  ethics  prevailing  at  that  time, 
could  be  settled  only  by  mortal  combat.  The  two  accordingly  repaired 
to  the  famous,  or  rather  infamous,  duelling-ground  at  Bladensburg,  in 
the  outskirts  of  the  city  of  Washington,  and  there,  on  March  22,  1820, 
fought  a  duel  which  resulted  in  the  death  of  Decatur.  This  tragedy, 
more,  perhaps,  than  almost  anything  else,  led  to  the  abolition  of  the 
savage  practice  of  duelling  in  the  United  States. 

The  death  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte  occurred  on  the  island  of  St. 
Helena  in  182 1.  In  the  following  year  the  world  suffered  the  early 
death  of  Shelley,  one  of  the  greatest  of  English  lyric  poets  ;  of  Herschel, 
one  of  the  foremost  astronomers  of  his  time  ;  and  of  Canova,  the  great 
Italian  sculptor. 


CHAPTER  X. 


John  Quincy  Adams    becomes   President  of  the  United   States— Trouble 
with  Creek  Indians — The  Panama  Congress— A  Notable  Anniver- 
sary—Political Movements— Election  of  General  Jackson. 


IN  1825,  Mr.  Monroe  was  succeeded  by  John  Ouincy  Adams,  who  had 
held  the  office  of  Secretary  of  State  during  Mr.  Monroe's  administra- 
tion. In  the  Presidential  election  of  1824  there  were  four  candidates 
for  the  Presidency, — John  Quincy  Adams,  Andrew  Jackson,  William 
H.  Crawford,  and  Henry  Clay.  Of  the  electoral  votes,  Jackson  received 
99,  Adams  84,  Crawford  41,  and  Clay  ^y"].  There  being  no  choice  by  the 
people,  the  election  evolved  upon  the  House  of  Representatives  ;  and 
Adams  was  elected,  having  received  the  votes  of  13  States,  Jackson  7, 
and  Crawford  4. 

During  Mr.  Adams's  administration  the  country  was  at  peace  and 
in  a  highly  prosperous  condition  ;  and  advantageous  treaties  of  peace 
and  commerce  were  negotiated  with  various  foreign  nations.  The  policy 
of  Mr.  Monroe's  administration  was  continued  and  greatly  extended,  in 
strengthening  every  arm  of  the  national  defence,  by  erecting  light- 
houses, arsenals,  fortifications,  etc.,  by  increasing  the  naval  establish- 
ment ;  and  especially  by  improving  the  inter-communication  between  the 
different  parts  of  the  country.  The  famous  Bunker  Hill  monument  was 
also  begun.  In  these  internal  improvements  more  was  effected  by  the 
aid  of  the  crovernment,  during-  Mr.  Adams's  administration,  than  during 
the  administrations  of  all  of  his  predecessors. 

TROUBLE  WITH  CREEK  INDIANS. 

The  national  government  had  agreed  to  extinguish,  for  the  benefit 
of  Georgia,  the  Indian  title  to  the  lands  held  by  the  Cherokees  and 
Creeks  in  that  State.  In  the  last  year  of  Mr.  Monroe's  administration, 
the  Creeks,  in  a  national  council,  refused  to  part  with  their  territory. 
After  the  council  broke  up,  however,  a  few  of  the  chiefs  remained,  and 
were   induced   to   make  a  treaty,  ceding  the   lands  to  the  United   States. 

140 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  I4I 

This  treaty  was  repudiated  by  the  Creek  nation  as  an  act  of  fraud  ;  but 
the  Governor  of  Georgia  determined  to  act  upon  it  as  valid. 

At  this  juncture,  the  Indians  appealed  for  protection  to  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  who  interposed  to  protect  them  from  gross 
injustice.  It  was,  however,  deemed  expedient  to  obtain  the  lands  in 
question  by  fair  purchase.  This  was  subsequently  accomplished  ;  and, 
in  a  few  years,  the  Indians  were  removed  to  Territories  west  of  the 
Mississippi. 

In  1828,  a  new  tariff  law  was  enacted,  imposing  duties  on  imports, 
with  a  view  to  afford  protection  to  American  manufacturers.  The  prin- 
ciple of  a  protective  tariff  has  met  with  a  strong  opposition,  especially  in 
the  Southern  States  ;  and  it  has,  ever  since  the  passage  of  this  act  of 
Congress,  unhappily,  continued  to  be  a  subject  of  contention  between 
opposite  political  parties. 

THE  PANAMA  CONGRESS. 

The  President,  having  been  invited  to  send  commissioners  to  the 
Congress  of  Panama,  which  had  for  its  object  the  cementing  of  the 
friendly  relations  of  all  the  independent  States  of  America,  saw  fit  to 
accept  the  invitation.  Having  nominated  Richard  C.  Anderson  and  John 
Sergeant,  as  Ministers  on  the  part  of  the  United  States,  and  William  B. 
Rochester,  of  New  York,  as  Secretary,  he  presented  these  names  to  the 
Senate  for  confirmation.  This  step  awakened  a  spirit  of  animosity 
against  the  President,  and  a  long  and  angry  debate  ensued  ;  but  the 
nominations  were  eventually  confirmed,  and  the  necessary  appropriations 
voted.  Measures  were  soon  taken  to  carry  this  policy  Into  effect,  and 
directions  were  sent  to  Mr.  Anderson,  who  was  then  In  Columbia,  to 
attend  the  Congress,  which  was  to  be  convened  in  the  beginning  of 
summer.  But  he  was  cut  down  by  a  malignant  fever  before  he  could 
reach  the  place.  Mr.  Sergeant  was  prevented  from  going,  on  account 
of  the  lateness  of  the  period  at  which  his  appointment  was  made. 

This  failure  of  representation  at  the  Congress,  on  the  part  of  the 
United  States,  was,  by  many,  deemed  auspicious,  as  the  relations  and 
interests  of  the  country  might  otherwise  have  been  compromitted  ;  but 
others  thought  differently,  and  believed  that  a  conference  of  the  kind 
might  Issue  In  the  adoption  of  a  friendly  and  enlightened  policy  between 
the  parties. 


142  STORY    OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

A  NOTABLE  ANNIVERSARY. 

In  this  administration  occurred  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  signing 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  This  was  a  day  long  to  be  remem- 
bered in  the  annals  of  the  nation.  The  exultation  of  feeling  throughout 
the  country,  that  we  had  reached  in  safety  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  our 
independence,  was  great.  The  day  was  everywhere  celebrated  with 
more  than  the  usual  demonstrations  of  joy.  But  the  most  striking 
feature  of  the  occasion  was  the  simultaneous  deaths  of  two  ex-Presi- 
dents of  the  United  States,  John  Adams  and  Thomas  Jefferson.  The 
coincidence  in  their  departure  from  life  was  certainly  remarkable,  more 
especially  as  having  occurred  at  that  particular  juncture.  It  would  seem 
to  have  been  a  providential  dispensation,  designed  to  answer  some 
important  purpose  ;  perhaps  to  awaken  the  great  principles  of  political 
freedom  and  equal  rights,  to  the  maintenance  of  which  the  lives  of  both 
were  consecrated.  They  had  both — and  equally,  perhaps — acted  a  most 
conspicuous  part  on  the  theatre  of  the  world,  and  especially  in  the  affairs 
of  American  independence.  "Both  had  been  Presidents,  both  had  lived 
to  great  age,  both  were  early  patriots,  and  both  were  distinguished  and 
ever  honored  by  their  immediate  agency  in  the  act  of  independence.  It 
cannot  but  seem  striking  and  extraordinary,  that  these  two  should  live  to 
see  the  fiftieth  year  from  the  date  of  that  act ;  that  they  should  complete 
that  year,  and  that  then,  on  the  day  which  had  fast  linked  forever  their 
own  fame  Vv'ith  their  country's  glory,  the  Heavens  should  open  to 
receive  them  both  at  once.  As  their  lives  themselves  were  the  eifts  of 
Providence,  who  is  not  willing  to  recognize,  in  their  happy  termination, 
as  well  as  in  their  long  continuance,  proofs  that  our  country  and  its 
benefactors  are  objects  of  His  care?" 

POLITICAL   MOVEMENTS. 

The  administration  of  Mr.  Adams  was  marked  by  the  rise  or 
development  of  several  political  movements  which  were  destined  to 
have  far-reaching  effects.  One  of  these  was  the  adoption  of  the  "Ameri- 
can System"  of  a  protective  tarift,  especially  championed  by  Henry 
Clay,  of  Kentucky.  The  name  "American  System"  was  given  to  the 
policy  of  protecting,  by  impost  duties,  the  manufactures  of  the  country 
against  foreign  competition.  It  began  to  be  employed  during  the 
administration   of  Mr.   Adams.      Additional   duties   were   sought  by  the 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  1 43 

friends  of  manufactures  on  woolen  goods,  and  a  bill  for  that  purpose 
passed  both  houses  of  Congress  in  the  months  of  April  and  May,  1827. 
The  measure,  however,  seemed  not  to  be  satisfactory  to  the  country  at 
large.  "The  President  was  in  favor  of  affording  protection  to  domestic 
manufactures  generally,  and  of  woolens  particularly,  which,  at  this  time, 
was  the  leading  question  in  political  economy,  so  far  as  the  Federal 
government  was  believed  to  have  authority  to  interfere.  But  he  was  also 
friendly  to  extensive  enterprises  in  commerce  and  navigation,  and  express- 
ed no  opinion  in  support  of  the  ultra  doctrines  of  the  manufacturers." 
The  rise  of  the  Anti-Masonic  party,  of  which  more  will  be  heard  in 
a  later  chapter,  is  also  to  be  attributed  to  this  era.  The  tariff  contro 
versy  gave  rise  to  the  famous  "  Nullification"  movement,  and  the  dispute 
with  Great  Britain  over  the  ownership  of  Oregon  waxed  apace.  A  new 
treaty  was  concluded  with  Great  Britain,  and  a  material  revision  of  the 
pension  system,  to  Revolutionary  soldiers  and  veterans  of  the  War  of 
18 1 2,  took  place. 

ELECTION  OF  GENERAL  JACKSON. 

The  administration  of  Mr.  Adams  encountered  strong  and  deter- 
mined  opposition.  The  circumstance  of  his  rival,  General  Jackson, 
having  had  a  larger  popular  vote  than  himself,  and  having  in  Congress 
only  a  small  majority  when  elected  to  office,  seemed,  in  the  view  of  the 
Democratic  party,  quite  sufficient  to  justify  a  more  than  usual  distrust 
of  his  administration  from  its  beginning.  Mr.  Adams  was  watched  with 
singular  vigilance,  and  every  advantage  taken  to  render  his  acts  unpopu- 
lar. It  was  early  charged  against  him  that  a  corrupt  bargain  had  been 
made  with  Mr.  Clay,  his  Secretary  of  State.  The  Panama  mission  was 
represented  as  a  measure  weak  and  injudicious.  And,  moreover,  it  was 
charged  that  his  administration  was  wasteful  and  extravagant. 

During  Monroe's  administration,  and,  indeed,  in  the  early  part  of 
John  Quincy  Adams's,  party  lines  were  practically  abolished  in  American 
politics.  But  in  the  latter  part  of  Mr.  Adams's  term  they  began  to  be 
drawn  again  pretty  strictly.  The  friends  of  Mr.  Adams  called  them- 
selves National  Republicans,  or  Whigs.  The  friends  and  political  fol- 
lowers of  General  Jackson,  on  the  other  hand,  took  the  name  of  Demo- 
crats. Mr.  Jackson  was  put  forward  as  a  candidate  for  the  presidency, 
and,  after  a  heated  and  bitter  campaign,  was  elected,  John  C.  Calhoun, 
of  South  Carolina,  being  chosen  at  the  same  time  as  Vice-President. 


CHAPTER  XI. 


Fall  of  Louis  XVIII. — The  War  in  Greece— Accession  of  Czar  Nicholas  I. — 
Change  of  Russian  Policy — Destruction  of  the  Janissaries — Declar- 
ing for  Greek    Independence  —  Battle    of    Navarino  —  Russia 
Makes  War  on  Turkey — Doings  in  Various   Lands. 


UPON  the  fall  of  Louis  XVIII,  of  France,  his  brother,  the  Count 
of  Artois,  became  King,  as  Charles  X.  He  was  imbued  with  all 
the  prejudices  and  prepossessions  of  the  old  regime,  and  he  had 
none  of  his  brother's  power  of  seeing  when  it  was  necessary  to 
yield.  He  contrasts  with  Louis  XVIII  as  James  II  did  with  Charles  II. 
But  his  first  measures  were  popular.  He  expressed  his  determination 
to  uphold  the  Charter;  he  removed  the  censorship  of  the  press  ;  and  he 
restored  to  Louis  Philippe,  the  son  of  Philippe  Egalite,  the  great  posses- 
sions of  the  house  of  Orleans  and  the  title  of  Royal  Highness.  But 
before  long  he  showed  his  real  intentions.  The  Ministry  of  Villele  was 
retained,  and  more  than  150  officers  of  the  Empire  were  dismissed  from 
the  army,  and  the  Jesuits,  though  still  proscribed  by  law,  were  allowed 
to  return  to  France  and  to  resume  their  control  of  education.  The 
enormous  sum  of  100,000,000  francs  was  raised  to  compensate  the 
losses  of  the  emigrants  who  had  fled  during  the  revolution,  and  in  spite 
of  vigorous  opposition  the  scheme  was  adopted  by  the  submissive 
chambers.  But  it  was  the  King's  devotion  to  the  church  that  raised  the 
bitterest  discontent.  The  open  patronage  of  the  Jesuits,  the  gorgeous 
processions  through  the  streets,  in  which  the  King  himself  took  part,  and 
a  law  which  proposed  to  punish  sacrilege  with  death,  aroused  uncompro- 
mising hostility  in  a  city  where  the  teaching  of  Voltaire  still  prevailed. 
In  1825  the  funeral  of  General  Foy,  the  most  eloquent  leader  of  the 
opposition,  gave  an  opportunity  for  a  grand  Liberal  demonstration.  To 
silence  criticism  the  Government  brought  in  a  new  law  to  shackle  the 
press,  but  it  was  received  with  such  disfavor  in  both  chambers  that  it  had 
to  be  withdrawn.  In  1827,  while  the  King  was  reviewing  the  National 
Guard,  a  cry  was  raised  of  "  Down  with  the  Jesuits  !  "  and  the  force  was 

144 


iSl5-XArOLEON' 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  1 47 

broken  up.  Villele  now  determined  on  a  last  effort  to  maintain  his 
power.  The  Chamber  of  Deputies  was  dissolved,  and  seventy-six  new 
peers  were  created.  But  the  new  elections  went  completely  against  the 
Government,  and  the  Liberals  secured  a  majority  of  428  to  125.  The 
King  was  compelled  to  give  way,  and  Villele  was  dismissed  (January 
3.  1828J. 

A  moderate  Ministry  now  came  into  office  under  the  Presidency  of 
M.  de  Martignac.  A  law  was  introduced  which  imposed  only  slight 
restrictions  upon  the  press,  and  a  number  of  ordinances  were  issued 
against  the  Jesuits.  But  Martignac  found  that  he  had  a  very  difficult 
position  to  occupy.  Charles  X  regarded  the  Ministers  as  forced  upon 
him,  and  refused  to  give  them  confidence. 

THE  WAR  IN  GREECE. 

The  campaign  of  1825,  in  Greece,  was  opened  by  the  landing,  in  the 
Morea,  of  an  Egyptian  army  under  Ibrahim  Pacha,  son  of  the  Viceroy  of 
Egypt,  whom  the  Sultan  had  induced  to  engage  in  the  war.  Navarino 
soon  fell  into  his  power  ;  nor  was  his  course  arrested  till  he  had  carried 
desolation  as  far  as  Argos.  In  the  meantime  Missolonghi  was  closely 
besieged  by  a  combined  land  and  naval  Turkish  force,  which,  on  the  2d  of 
August,  after  a  contest  of  several  days,  suffered  a  disastrous  defeat,  with 
the  loss  of  9000  men.  But  Missolonghi  was  again  besieged  for  the  fourth 
time,  the  siege  being  conducted  by  Ibrahim  Pacha  alone,  who  had  an 
army  of  25,000  men,  trained  mostly  by  French  officers.  After  repelling 
numerous  assaults  and  enduring  the  extremities  of  famine,  Missolonghi 
at  length  fell,  on  the  2 2d  of  April,  1826,  when  1800  of  the  garrison  cut 
their  way  through  the  enemy  and  reached  Salonica  and  Athens  in  safety. 
Many  ot  the  inhabitants  escaped  to  the  mountains  ;  large  numbers  were 
captured  in  their  flight ;  and  those  who  remained  in  the  city,  about  one 
thousand  in  number,  mosdy  old  men,  women  and  children,  blew  them- 
selves up  in  the  mines  that  had  been  prepared  for  the  purpose.  Five 
thousand  women  and  children  were  made  slaves,  and  more  than  three 
thousand  ears  were  sent  as  a  precious  trophy  to  Constantinople. 

The  fall  of  Missolonghi  was  followed  by  the  siege  of  Athens. 
Another  obstinate  defence  was  made,  but  in  spite  of  the  assistance  ren- 
dered by  Colonel  Fabvier,  Lord  Cochrane  and  General  Church,  Athens 
had  to  surrender  (2d  of  June.  1827).     The  Greek  cause  was  hopeless 


I4S  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

unless  the  European  powers  would  interfere,  and  the  old  dissensions 
broke  out  again.  Fortunately  for  the  Greeks  events  had  occurred  which 
altered  the  relations  of  the  European  States,  and  frustrated  Metternich's 
determination  to  uphold  the  Porte  as  the  champion  of  legitimate  authority 
against  revolution. 

ACCESSION  OF  CZAR  NICHOLAS  I. 

On  the  1st  of  December,  1825,  Alexander  I,  of  Russia,  died  sud- 
denly on  a  journey  to  the  Crimea.  As  he  left  no  children,  his  natural 
successor  was  his  brother,  Constantine,  who  resided  in  Warsaw,  as 
Governor  of  Poland.  But  Constantine,  who  had  contracted  a  morganatic 
marriage  with  a  Polish  Princess,  and  who  was  devoid  of  ambition,  had, 
in  1822,  formally  renounced  all  claims  in  favor  of  his  younger  brother, 
Nicholas.  This  renunciation  had  never  been  made  public,  and  Nicholas, 
unwilling  to  act  upon  it  until  it  had  been  confirmed,  caused  the  troops  to 
swear  fealty  to  Constantine  as  Alexander's  successor.  But  the  elder 
brother  positively  refused  to  ascend  the  throne,  and  Nicholas  was  com- 
pelled to  assume  the  authority  that  now  devolved  upon  him.  But  unex- 
pected difficulties  confronted  him.  Alexander's  desertion  of  Liberal 
principles  in  his  later  years  had  alienated  the  affection  of  his  subjects, 
and  a  secret  association  had  been  formed,  under  Prince  Troubetskoi, 
with  the  object  of  forming  Russia  into  a  federal  republic.  The  uncer- 
tainty about  the  succession  and  the  consequent  interregnum  gave  the 
conspirators  an  unexpected  opportunity.  They  persuaded  the  soldiers 
that  Constantine's  pretended  renunciation  was  a  fraud,  and  that  Nicholas 
was  trying  to  usurp  his  brother's  throne.  The  result  was  that,  when  the 
troops  were  called  upon  to  take  a  new  oath  of  fealty,  a  cry  was  raised  for 
Constantine,  and  the  tumult  went  so  far  that  artillery  had  to  be  employed, 
and  the  disloyal  regiments  were  almost  destroyed  before  they  would 
yield.     The  conspiracy  was  now  discovered  and  its  leaders  punished. 

CHANGE  OF  RUSSIAN  POLICY. 

The  accession  of  Nicholas  brought  with  it  a  complete  change  in  both 
the  internal  and  foreign  politics  of  Russia.  From  the  first  moment  he 
abandoned  the  system  pursued  by  his  predecessors  from  Peter  the  Great 
downwards.  Instead  of  attempting  to  civilize  Russia  by  introducing  the 
customs  and  laws  of  western  Europe,  he  showed  himself  an  ardent  par- 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  149 

tisan  of  all  the  old  national  institutions,  and  especially  the  Greek  Church. 
The  Russian  language  was  ordered  to  be  taught  in  the  German  and 
Polish  provinces,  and  a  knowledge  of  it  was  essential  for  a  place  in  the 
public  service.  If  a  foreigner  married  a  Russian  their  children  must  be 
educated  in  the  faith  of  the  latter.  The  zeal  for  proselytism  only  just 
stopped  short  of  actual  persecution.  At  the  same  time  Nicholas  claimed 
to  be  the  head  and  protector  for  all  members  of  the  Greek  Church  out- 
side of  his  own  dominions,  It  was  evident  that  his  attitude  in  the  eastern 
question  would  be  very  different  from  that  of  Alexander,  and  that  it 
would  be  determined  by  the  interests  of  Russia  rather  than  by  the  princi- 
ples of  legitimacy.  The  Holy  Alliance  had  been  shaken  by  the  conduct 
of  Canning  ;  it  was  shattered  by  the  accession  of  Nicholas.  Metternich 
lost  the  control  of  European  diplomacy  which  he  had  contrived  to  hold 
for  the  last  ten  years. 

Canninor  lost  no  time  in  sendino-  Welling-ton  to  St.  Petersburg^  to 
discuss  the  question  of  Greece  with  the  Czar.  At  first  Nicholas  haughtily 
declared  that  his  relations  with  the  Porte  concerned  no  other  power,  but 
he  soon  saw  the  advantage  of  making  England  his  accomplice  in  a  par- 
tition of  Turkey.  In  April,  1826,  a  secret  convention  was  signed,  which 
arrano^ed  that  Greece  should  be  formed  into  a  reg-ular  State,  but  should 
pay  tribute  to  the  Sultan.  In  case  of  refusal  the  two  powers  were  to 
compel  the  Porte  to  accept  these  terms.  The  other  powers  were  to  be 
invited  to  join  the  alliance. 

DESTRUCTION  OF  THE  JANISSARIE^S. 

At  the  same  time  Nicholas  had  other  matters  to  settle  with  the 
Sultan,  and  Mahmoud  II  played  into  his  hands  by  choosing  this  very 
moment  for  the  reforms  which  he  had  been  meditating  ever  since  his 
accession.  He  issued  an  ordinance  altering  the  constitution  of  the  Janis- 
saries, the  famous  Turkish  troops  composed  of  children  of  Christians 
taken  captive,  though  it  left  the  existing  members  of  corps  in  enjoyment 
of  their  privileges.  The  result  was  a  general  mutiny  on  the  14th  of 
June.  But  the  Sultan  was  prepared  for  extreme  measures.  He  pro- 
duced the  sacred  standard  of  the  prophet  and  called  upon  all  true  be- 
lievers to  support  him.  A  wholesale  massacre  of  the  Janissaries  followed, 
and  the  name  was  banished  forever.  Mahmoud  now  set  to  work  to  raise 
a  new  army,  which  was  to  consist  of  250,000  men,  armed  and  trained  like 


1  50  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

European  troops.  But  a  long  time  must  elapse  before  such  an  elaborate 
scheme  could  be  carried  out,  and  meanwhile  Turkey  was  defenceless. 
This  compelled  the  Sultan  to  accept  all  the  demands  of  Nicholas  in  the 
convention  of  Ackermann  (October,  1826).  The  treaty  of  Bucharest 
was  confirmed,  and  it  was  agreed  that  the  Hospodars  of  Moldavia  and 
Wallachia  should  be  chosen  for  seven  years,  that  they  should  rule  with  a 
council  of  Boyars  in  complete  independence  of  the  Porte,  and  that  they 
could  not  be  deposed  without  the  consent  of  Russia.  Servia  was  to  elect 
its  own  Prince,  and  the  Sultan  was  not  to  interfere  in  its  internal  affairs. 
Russia  was  to  occupy  the  fortresses  on  the  east  coast  of  the  Black  Sea, 
and  Russian  ships  had  the  right  of  entering  all  Turkish  waters. 

DECLARING  FOR  GREEK  INDEPENDENCE. 

One  of  the  Sultan's  motives  for  such  abject  compliance  was  a  desire 
to  separate  Russia  from  England  on  the  Greek  question.  But  Nicholas 
was  the  last  man  to  be  turned  from  his  course  by  an  exhibition  of  weak- 
ness, and  the  negotiations  were  actively  prosecuted  at  a  conference  in 
London.  Metternich  resolutely  refused  to  countenance  rebellion  in  any 
form,  and  induced  Frederick  William  of  Prussia  to  adhere  to  the  pro- 
gramme of  the  Holy  Alliance.  In  France  the  moderate  Louis  XVIII  had 
been  succeeded  by  the  reactionary  Charles  X,  but  the  strong  French 
sympathy  with  the  Greeks  induced  the  Government  to  disregard  the 
danger  of  revolution  and  to  join  Russia  and  England.  On  the  6th  of 
July,  1S27,  the  three  powers  concluded  the  treaty  of  London,  which  was 
based  on  the  previous  convention  of  April,  1826.  Greece  was  to  be 
tributary,  but  otherwise  independent ;  hostilities  were  to  cease  imme- 
diately ;  and  if  the  Sultan  failed  to  accept  the  mediation  of  the  powers 
within  a  month,  the  latter  would  recognize  the  entire  independence  of 
Greece.  This  treaty,  which  was  forced  upon  Canning  by  the  fear  of 
allowing  Russia  to  interfere  single-handed,  was  his  last  conspicuous  act. 
He  died  on  the  8th  of  August,  and  the  Tories  gradually  regained  the 
upper  hand  in  the  Ministry. 

BATTLE  OF  NAVARINO. 

The  Sultan,  whose  hopes  of  success  had  been  raised  by  the  capture 
of  Missolonghi  and  Athens,  haughtily  refused  to  admit  the  right  of  any 
power  to  interfere  between  himself  and  his  rebellious  subjects.     Ibrahim 


•J) 

< 

2 

w 
o 

< 

I 
H 


W 

o 

o 

D 


C/5 

a; 

H 
< 

7 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  1 53 

at  this  time  received  large  reinforcements,  which  were  brought  to  Nava- 
rino  by  an  Egyptian  fleet  from  Alexandria.  He  received  orders  to  wage 
a  war  of  extermination  in  the  Morea,  and  he  acted  up  to  the  letter  of  his 
instructions.  Meanwhile  the  allied  fleets  of  England,  France  and  Russia 
had  appeared  on  the  scene  to  enforce  the  treaty  of  London.  The 
admirals  called  upon  Ibrahim  to  cease  hostilities,  and  entered  the  harbor 
of  Navarino  to  compel  his  submission.  In  these  circumstances  a  battle 
was  inevitable,  and  in  four  hours  the  whole  Egyptian  fleet  was  utterly 
destroyed  (20th  October,  1827).  Mehemet  AH  was  compelled  to  recall 
his  son.  Such  active  mediation  had  not  been  anticipated  in  England, 
where  the  Ministers  alluded  to  the  battle  as  "an  untoward  event."  But 
the  Greeks,  whose  cause  seemed  on  the  very  verge  ot  collapse,  received 
the  news  with  frantic  enthusiasm.  Mahmoud  II  complained  bitterly  o'! 
the  outrage,  and  expressed  his  determination  not  to  yield.  In  December 
the  Ambassadors  of  the  allied  powers  had  to  leave  Constantinople. 

RUSSIA  MAKES  WAR  ON  TURKEY. 

That  the  battle  of  Navarino  really  proved  an  "untoward  event"  to 
English  interests  was  due  mainly  to  the  conduct  of  the  Ministers,  who 
abandoned  the  policy  of  Canning  and  allowed  Russia  to  attack  Turkey 
single-handed,  the  very  thing  which  he  had  striven  to  avoid.  No  oppo- 
sition was  made  to  the  election  of  the  Russian  nominee,  Capo  d'Istria,  as 
President  by  the  Greek  National  Assembly.  Nicholas  was  eager  to  seize 
the  advantages  offered  to  him  by  the  vacillation  of  England  and  the 
destruction  of  the  Janissaries.  Time  was  required  to  collect  the  resour- 
ces of  so  vast  a  country  as  Russia,  but  in  April,  1828,  war  was  declared, 
and  in  May  150,000  Russian  troops,  under  Wittgenstein,  crossed  the 
Pruth.  To  the  astonishment  of  Europe  the  campaign  was  a  complete 
failure.  The  Turks  wisely  restricted  their  efforts  to  the  defence  of  for- 
tresses, in  which  they  have  always  excelled.  The  Russians  spent  so 
much  time  in  the  siege  of  Schumla,  Varna  and  Silistria,  that  winter  com 
pelled  them  to  retreat  before  they  had  achieved  anything  beyond  the 
reduction  of  Varna.  The  simultaneous  campaign  in  Asia  was  more  for 
tunate,  and  Paskiewitsch,  who  had  already  made  a  great  name  in  the 
wars  with  Persia,  captured  the  strong  fortresses  of  Kars  and  Achalzik, 
which  the  Turks  regarded  as  impregnable.  At  the  same  time  the  with- 
drawal of  Ibrahim  and  his  Egyptian  troops  enabled  the  Greeks  once 
9 


154  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

more  to  hold  their  own  in  the  peninsula.  Still,  on  the  whole,  the  Russians 
had  failed,  and  Metternich  endeavored  to  take  advantage  of  this  to  arrange 
a  peace  which  should  save  Turkey  from  humiliation.  But  France  and 
Prussia  declined  to  support  him,  and  even  Wellington,  who  was  now  at 
the  head  of  the  English  Ministry,  would  not  take  any  active  steps  to 
check  the  advance  of  Russia. 

In  the  month  of  January,  1829,  the  Sultan  received  a  protocol  from 
the  three  allied  powers,  declaring  that  they  took  the  Morea  and  Cyclades 
under  their  protection,  and  that  the  entry  of  any  military  force  into 
Greece  would  be  regarded  as  an  attack  upon  themselves. 

DOINGS  IN  VARIOUS  LANDS. 

The  year  1825  saw  changes  on  other  thrones  than  that  of  Russia. 
In  it  Maximilian  I,  of  Bavaria,  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Louis  I  ;  and 
Ferdinand  I,  of  Naples,  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Francis  I.  These 
changes  were,  however,  of  no  special  significance  to  the  general  course 
of  events  on  the  Continent. 

Of  the  first  Burmese  war  and  its  results  to  the  British  Empire  we 
have  already  spoken.  It  came  to  an  end  in  1826.  In  the  same  year  the 
Spaniards  evacuated  Callao,  their  last  holding  in  Peru. 

The  illustrious  Canning  succeeded  Lord  Liverpool  as  Prime  Minister 
of  England  in  April,  1827,  and  died  at  the  post  of  duty  in  August  of  the 
same  year.  In  that  year  Frederick  Augustus,  King  of  Saxony,  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother  Anthony.  In  1828  the  Duke  of  Wellington, 
the  conqueror  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  became  Prime  Minister  of 
England,  and  the  Test  Act,  of  which  we  have  elsewhere  spoken,  was 
repealed. 

The  war  between  Persia  and  Russia  came  to  an  end  in  February, 
1828,  with  the  cession  of  Persian  Armenia  to  Russia.  In  that  year 
Uruguay  was  recognized  as  an  independent  republic. 


CHAPTER  XII. 


Opening  of  the  Erie  Caned  —  Gas  Lighting  —  Railroads  —  Arctic   Explor- 
ation— Early  Strikes — Miscellaneous   Events. 


THE  year  1825  was  marked  in  the  United  States  with  an  event  of 
inestimable  industrial  and  commercial  importance.  This  was  the 
opening  of  the  Erie  Canal,  directly  connecting  the  Great  Lakes 
with  the  Atlantic  Ocean  by  way  of  the  Hudson  River.  Seldom 
has  a  work  of  great  public  utility  been  so  stubbornly  resisted  and  so 
bitterly  ridiculed  and  savagely  denounced.  Its  author  and  promoter, 
DeWitt  Clinton,  was  alternately  derided  as  a  lunatic  and  denounced  as 
a  knave.  But  his  perseverance  was  crowned  with  success,  and  thus 
New  York  City  was  made  the  greatest  commercial  port  of  the  Western 
Hemisphere. 

The  project  of  connecting  the  lakes  with  the  ocean  by  way  of  the 
Mohawk  and  Hudson  valleys  was  considered  as  far  back  as  the  early 
part  of  the  Revolutionary  War,  when  no  less  a  man  than  General  Wash- 
ington found  time  amid  his  urgent  military  duties  to  look  over  a  part  of 
the  route,  and  to  express  his  opinion  of  the  practicability  of  the  scheme. 
The  Western  Inland  Navigation  Company  was  formed  in  1792,  and  five 
years  later  it  completed  some  six  miles  of  shallow  canal  around  rapids  of 
the  Mohawk,  thus  opening  a  waterway  for  small  boats  from  above  Little 
Falls  to  Lake  Ontario.  These  works  were  afterwards  purchased  by  the 
State  of  New  York. 

The  next  step  was  taken  in  1808,  when  Simeon  DeWitt,  the  Sur- 
veyor-General of  the  State  of  New  York,  was  directed  to  inspect  and 
lay  out  a  canal  route  from  the  Hudson  River  to  Lake  Erie.  He  ap- 
pointed James  Geddes  to  do  the  work,  and  the  latter,  in  January,  1809, 
reported  on  various  routes  by  way  of  Oneida  Lake  and  Oswego.  The 
next  year  the  New  York  Legislature  appointed  a  committee  on  the  pro- 
ject. The  chairman  of  this  committee  was  Gouverneur  Morris,  who  as 
early  as  1803  had  declared  himself  in  favor  of  a  canal  from  Albany  to 
Buffalo.     This   committee   made  several   reports,  but  nothing   practical 

^55 


156  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

was    done  until  De  Witt  Clinton  took  up  the  matter  and  urged  it  to 
completion. 

On  April  7th,  1816,  Clinton  secured  the  passage  of  an  act  authoriz- 
ing the  construction  of  the  canal.  Ground  for  the  great  work  was 
broken  at  Rome,  N.  Y.,  on  July  4th,  181 7.  In  the  face  of  obstacles,  the 
work  was  earnestly  prosecuted,  and  Clinton  had  the  supreme  felicity  of 
seeing  it  successfully  completed  and  opened  on  November  4th,  1825, 
from  Buffalo  to  Albany,  a  distance  of  352  miles.  It  was  forty  feet  wide 
and  four  feet  deep,  and  was  navigable  by  boats  of  76  tons  burden.  It 
has  since,  of  course,  been  much  enlarged. 

The  Lake  Champlain  Canal  was  authorized  at  the  same  time  as  the 
Erie.  The  State  of  Pennsylvania  in  1826  began  the  construction  of  an 
elaborate  series  of  canals  from  Pittsburg  to  Philadelphia  and  to  Lake 
Erie,  comprising  more  than  600  miles.  The  canal  along  the  Delaware 
River  from  Bordentown  to  Easton  was  begun  in  1827.  The  George- 
town and  Cumberland  Canal,  to  connect  the  Potomac  with  the  Ohio 
River,  was  begun  on  July  4th,  1828,  President  Adams  himself  turning  the 
first  spadeful  of  earth.  The  Louisville  and  Portland  Canal,  in  Kentucky, 
was  begun  in  1825.  In  1824-29  the  Chesapeake  and  Delaware  bays 
were  connected  by  a  canal  across  the  State  of  Delaware.  The  Delaware 
and  Raritan  Canal,  across  New  Jersey,  was  planned  at  the  same  time, 
and  was  constructed  a  few  years  later. 

GAS   LIGHTING. 

We  have  hitherto  recorded  the  use  of  gas  for  illuminating  purposes 
in  London.  The  first  attempt  to  manufacture  gas  in  the  United 
States  was  made  at  Baltimore  in  the  second  decade  of  the  century, 
but  was  not  successful  until  1821.  Gas  lighting  was  introduced  into 
the  city  of  Boston  on  a  small  scale  in  1822.  The  next  year  the  New 
York  Gas  Light  Company  was  organized  in  New  York  City,  but  for 
some  time  did  nothing  practical.  At  last,  however,  in  1827,  it  set  to  work 
and  illuminating  gas  came  into  general  use  in  the  city. 

RAILROADS. 

The  first  real  railroad  in  the  world  was  that  between  Stockton  and 
Darlington,  in  England,  for  the  carrying  of  coal.  It  was  opened  in  1825, 
the    cars  being  drawn  by  horses.     But    Stephenson   soon    equipped    it 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  157 

with  Steam  locomotives.  In  1828  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  railroad 
was  opened,  also  for  horse-power.  Stephenson  urged  the  use  of  steam- 
power,  and  the  directors  offered  a  reward  for  a  locomotive  that  should 
be  able  to  draw  three  times  its  own  weight  on  a  level  track,  at  the  rate  of 
ten  miles  an  hour.  In  October,  1829,  the  "Rocket,"  an  engine  built  by 
Stephenson's  nephew,  more  than  answered  the  required  test.  It 
weighed  only  7^  tons,  and  it  drew  44  tons  at  the  rate  of  14  miles 
an  hour. 

The  United  States  did  not  lag  behind  in  railroad  building.  A  five- 
mile  horse  road  was  built  at  Quincy,  Mass.,  in  1826—27,  to  convey 
granite  from  the  quarries  to  tidewater.  It  was  built  to  supply  stone  for 
the  Bunker  Hill  Monument.  Another  was  begun  in  1827  and  com- 
pleted in  the  same  year,  to  carry  coal  from  the  mines  to  the  river,  at 
Mauch  Chunk,  Pa.,  a  distance  of  nine  miles.  The  cars,  loaded,  were  to 
be  run  down  by  gravity,  and  pulled  up  again  by  mule-power.  A  simi- 
lar road  was  built  in  1828  by  the  Delaware  and  Hudson  Canal  Com- 
pany, at  Honesdale,  Pa. 

In  January,  1828,  Horatio  Allen,  of  the  Delaware  and  Hudson 
Canal  Company,  went  to  England  to  order  iron  rails  for  the  last-named 
road,  and  to  examine  the  newly-invented  steam  locomotives  ;  and,  if  he 
thought  well  of  them,  to  purchase  three.  He  did,  in  fact,  order  one 
locomotive  at  the  works  of  Foster,  Rastrick  &  Co.,  of  Stourbridge,  and 
two  more  at  the  works  of  R.  Stephenson  &  Co.,  at  Newcastle.  These 
engines  were  received  at  New  York  in  the  winter  of  1828-9,  and  the 
following  spring  were  put  upon  the  rails.  The  Stourbridge  engine  was 
run  with  anthracite  coal  as  fuel,  by  Mr.  Allen  himself,  making  six  miles 
at  its  first  trip,  and  was  the  first  steam  locomotive  to  be  run  on  the 
American  continent.  The  next  year  locomotive  building  was  success- 
fully begun  in  the   United  States  at  West  Point. 

ARCTIC   EXPLORATION. 

The  first  important  voyage  to  the  Arctic  seas  in  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury was  that  of  Captain  Scoresby.  This  was  simply  a  whaling  voyage, 
but  the  high  latitude  of  81  deg.  30  min.  was  reached,  in  1806.  Twelve 
years  later  Commander  John  Ross  made  an  unsatisfactory  voyage  into 
Baffin  Bay  and  Lancaster  Sound.  In  the  same  year,  1818,  Captain 
Buchan  reached  the  northern  part  of  Spitzbergen. 


158  STORY    OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

The  first  voyage  of  Lieutenant  Parry  was  made  in  1819-20.  He 
was  in  quest  of  the  north-west  passage  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific, 
and  he  went  througli  Davis  Strait,  Baffin  Bay,  Lancaster  Sound  and  Bar- 
row Strait,  to  Melville  Island.  Captain  (afterward  Sir)  John  Franklin 
made  a  journey  in  the  Hudson  Bay  and  Great  Slave  Lake  region,  to  the 
Arctic  Ocean  in  1819-22.  At  about  the  same  time  a  Russian  expedition 
explored  Nova  Zembla.  Parry's  second  voyage  was  made  in  182 1-3. 
Again  he  sought  the  northwest  passage,  and  he  went  through  Hudson 
Strait  and  Fox  Channel  to  Fury  and  Hecla  Strait.  Captain  Scoresby 
explored  and  mapped  the  eastern  coast  of  Greenland  to  a  high  latitude 
in  1822.  In  that  and  the  following  year  Captain  Sabine  went  to  Spitz- 
bereen  and  the  eastern  coast  of  Greenland. 

Parry's  third  voyage  for  the  northwest  passage,  in  1824-25,  ended 
in  a  shipwreck.  In  1825-7  Franklin  made  his  second  expedition  to  the 
Arctic  regions  by  way  of  the  Mackenzie  River.  Captain  Beechey  went 
throueh  Behrine  Sea  and  alonor  the  Arctic  coast  as  far  as  Point  Barrow 
in  1826.  Parry  made  his  fourth  voyage  in  1827.  On  this  occasion  he 
forsook  the  northwest  passage  and  steered  for  the  North  Pole.  He 
went  by  ship  to  Spitzenbergen  and  thence  by  boats  as  far  north  as  82 
degrees  45  minutes,  the  highest  latitude  that  had  thus  far  been  reached, 
and  the  highest  that  was  reached  for  many  years  thereafter. 

EARLY  STRIKES. 

The  earliest  strike  of  which  there  is  any  satisfactory  record  in  this 
country  was  that  of  the  boot  and  shoe  makers  of  Philadelphia  in  1796. 
These  men  "turned  out,"  as  the  saying  then  was,  for  an  increase  of 
wages.  They  won,  and  again  struck  in  1798  and  1799,  carrying  their 
point  each  time. 

The  first  strike  in  New  York  of  which  record  has  been  found  is 
that  of  the  sailors  in  1803  for  an  increase  of  wages  from  $10  to  $14  a 
month.  The  jack  tars  paraded  around  the  water  front  and  compelled 
seamen  from  every  ship  in  port  that  they  could  reach  to  join  with  them 
in  their  agitation.  They  became  riotous,  and  the  town  guard  turned  out 
and  repressed  their  disorder.  The  leader  of  this  strike  was  convicted 
and  sent  to  jail,  and  the  strike  was  a  signal  failure.  On  November  i, 
1805,  the  journeymen  bootmakers  of  Philadelphia  again  struck,  this  time 
for  an  increase  in  their  pay  of  from  25  to  75  cents  on  each  pair  of  boots. 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  159 

The  successful  precedents  set  by  their  fellows  some  years  before  did  not 
avail  them,  however  ;  the  strike  was  an  egregious  failure.  Its  organizers 
were  found  guilty  of  "conspiracy  to  raise  wages,"  and  were  fined  $8 
and  costs  each.  When  the  New  York  shoemakers  turned  out  in  1809, 
200  strong,  they  won  their  contention,  but  when  the  shoemakers  in 
Pittsburg  in  18 15  followed  their  example  they  failed,  and  were  convicted 
and  fined. 

As  long  ago  as  1821  the  printers  struck  in  Albany  against  non- 
union workmen,  but  there  are  no  data  at  hand  now  indicating  the  exact 
result  of  their  protest.  Next  in  chronological  order  came  the  strike  of 
the  spinning  girls  in  the  Cocheco  Mills  in  Dover,  N.  H.,  in  1827.  The 
carpenters  and  masons  of  Boston  struck  in  1830  for  a  ten-hour  day  and 
failed.  So  the  protest  against  non-union  workingmen  dates  at  least  from 
182 1,  and  that  for  a  ten-hour  day  at  least  from  1830. 

MISCELLANEOUS   EVENTS. 

The  University  of  London,  England,  was  founded  in  1826,  to  become 
University  College  when  the  new  University  of  London  was  incorporated 
in  1836. 

In  1825  occurred  the  death  of  Saint-Simon,  the  founder  of  French 
Socialism,  and  of  Jean  Paul  Richter,  the  incomparable  German  essayist, 
humorist  and  philosopher.  One  of  the  most  impressive  incidents  of  the 
age  was  the  death  of  Thomas  Jefferson  and  John  Adams  on  July  4,  1826, 
already  mentioned  elsewhere  in  these  pages.  Both  were  conspicuous 
framers  and  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  both  had  been 
President  of  the  United  States,  and  both  died  on  the  same  day,  the 
fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  signing  of  the  Declaration. 

Laplace,  the  great  French  astronomer,  died  in  1827,  and  the  same 
year  saw  the  death  of  Beethoven,  the  greatest  musical  composer  the 
world  has  ever  known. 

The  years  of  which  we  are  now  speaking  were  marked  with  a 
strange  mixture  of  fashions  and  customs  in  dress  and  otherwise.  In 
the  reactionary  countries  of  Europe  the  tendency  w-as  toward  a  restora- 
tion of  manners  that  had  prevailed  before  the  revolutionarj'  era,  while  in 
England  and  the  United  States  the  tendency  was  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion.    The  latter  tendency  was  the  more  rational,  and  finally  prevailed. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 


Andrew   J&ckson    becomes   President  of  the   United   States— Changes  in 

Office— Nullification — South  Carolina  Yields — Georgia  and  the 

Cherokees — National  Bank — Removal  of  the  Deposits — 

Black  Hawk  War — Seminole  War — Jackson 

Re-elected — Foreign  Affairs. 


IN  1829  Mr.  Adams  was  succeeded  as  President  of  the  United  States 
by  Andrew  Jackson,  who  had  been  principally  known  for  his  military 
achievements,  and  who,  in  the  battle  of  New  Orleans,  and  in  conduct- 
ing a  war  with  the  Seminole  and  Creek  Indians,  had  acquired  a  high 
reputation  as  a  military  commander. 

General  Jackson's  administration  was  signalized  by  a  more  extensive 
removal  of  office-holders  than  had  been  practiced  by  any  of  his  prede- 
cessors ;  by  a  persevering  hostility  to  the  United  States  Bank,  which 
terminated  in  the  overthrow  of  that  institution  ;  and  by  opposition  to  the 
policy  of  making  appropriations  for  internal  improvements.  Several  bills 
making  such  appropriations,  and  also  a  bill  for  the  renewal  of  the  charter 
of  the  United  States  Bank,  which  passed  both  Houses  of  Congress,  he 
returned  with  his  veto. 

CHANGES  IN  OFFICE. 

President  Jackson  not  only  introduced  into  American  politics  the 
Democratic  party  under  its  present  name,  but  he  also  established  the 
principle  of  "rotation  in  office,"  or,  as  it  has  in  later  years  been  known, 
"the  spoils  system."  He  believed  that  it  was  best  for  the  country  to 
have  frequent  changes  in  office,  and  that  such  changes  should  be  made 
by  the  simple  process  of  turning  off  all  the  old  office-holders  and  filling 
their  places  with  the  friends  and  followers  of  the  new  administration.  So 
well  did  he  put  this  principle  into  practice  that  in  two  years  he  made 
more  changes  in  office  than  all  his  predecessors  had  made  in  forty  years. 
His  doctrine  of  rotation  in  office  was  in  after  years  tersely  expressed  by 
his  friend  and  follower,  William  L.  Marcy,  in  the  historic  phrase,  "  to  the 
victors  belong  the  spoils." 

160 


STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS.  l6l 

NULLIFICATION. 

One  of  the  most  sensational  events  of  Jackson's  administration  was 
the  rise  of  "nullification,"  of  which,  indeed,  the  first  intimations  had  been 
perceived  in  the  preceding  administration.  This  was  otherwise  known 
as  the  doctrine  of  States  Rights  or  States  Sovereignty.  It  was  put  for- 
ward by  the  Vice-President,  John  C.  Calhoun,  and  by  Senator  Robert  Y. 
Hayne,  both  of  South  Carolina.  They  insisted  that  the  United  States 
was  not  a  Union,  but  a  mere  Confederacy  or  Alliance  of  independent 
States,  and  that  any  State  was  at  liberty  to  withdraw  from  it  at  any  time, 
or  to  refuse  to  obey  any  law  of  the  general  government.  This  was,  of 
course,  the  origin  of  the  theory  which  in  i860  and  1861  reached  its 
culmination  in  open  secession.  Upon  this  subject  was  held  the  most 
famous  debate  ever  known  in  the  United  States  Senate,  between  Mr. 
Hayne  on  one  side,  and  Daniel  Webster,  of  Massachusetts,  on  the  other. 
The  great  reputation  won  by  Mr.  Webster  in  this  debate  gained  for  him 
the  popular  title  of  the  Expounder  of  the  Constitution,  and  his  words, 
"Liberty  and  Union,  now  and  forever,  one  and  inseparable,"  became  the 
often  quoted  watchword  of  those  who  were  opposed  to  nullification  and 
secession.  Soon  after  this  debate  Mr.  Hayne  resigned  his  place  in  the 
Senate  and  became  Governor  of  South  Carolina,  and  Mr.  Calhoun  re- 
signed the  Vice-Presidency  to  take  the  place  thus  left  vacant  in  the 
Senate.  Then  a  popular  convention  in  South  Carolina  declared  the 
national  tariff  law  which  Congress  had  enacted  to  be  null  and  void,  and 
added  that  if  any  attempt  was  made  by  the  Federal  government  to 
enforce  it  in  South  Carolina  that  State  would  secede  from  the  Union. 
President  Jackson  acted  in  this  emergency  with  great  promptness  and 
resolution.  He  declared  that  nullification  was  treason,  and  that  the 
Union  must  be  and  should  be  preserved.  In  this  year,  1832,  he  issued 
a  proclamation  plainly  and  forcibly  stating  the  nature  of  the  American 
government,  and  the  supremacy  of  the  federal  authorities  in  all  matters 
intrusted  to  their  care.  At  the  same  time,  in  this  document,  he  exhorted 
the  citizens  of  South  Carolina  not  to  persist  in  a  course  which  must  bring 
upon  their  State  the  force  of  the  confederacy,  and  expose  the  Union  to 
the  hazard  of  a  dissolution. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA  YIELDS. 

The  proclamation  of  General  Jackson  was  a  noble  production.     It 
was   hailed  with  delight  throughout  the  country  as  well   by  his  political 


162  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

opponents  as  by  his  friends.  "  Perhaps  no  document  has  emanated  from 
the  executive  department  of  the  government  which  has  been  more 
generally  approved,  both  in  regard  to  the  style  in  which  it  was  written, 
and  the  doctrines  asserted  and  maintained,  since  the  farewell  address  of 
the  first  President.  It  contains  no  speculative  opinions,  no  new  theories; 
it  speaks  the  facts  of  history,  in  the  language  of  the  Constitution,  and  in 
the  spirit  which  we,  of  a  later  generation,  may  suppose  animated  its 
framers." 

The  Governor  of  South  Carolina  issued  a  counter  proclamation, 
calling  on  the  people  to  resist  any  attempt  to  enforce  the  tariff  laws. 
The  President  then  addressed  a  message  to  Congress,  recommending 
such  measures  as  would  enable  the  executive  to  suppress  the  spirit  of 
insubordination,  and  sustain  the  laws  of  the  United  States.  The  Presi- 
dent, on  this  momentous  occasion,  was  nobly  supported  by  the  leaders 
of  the  opposition  party  in  Congress,  with  Mr.  Webster  at  their  head. 
The  force  of  public  opinion  was  irresistible: — South  Carolina  was  com- 
pelled to  shrink  before  it.  No  resistance  was  actually  made  to  the 
enforcement  of  the  laws  they  had  nullified,  and,  consequently,  no  coercive 
measures  were  necessary  on  the  part  of  the  general  government  to 
maintain  its  authority.  The  objectionable  laws  were  somewhat  modified 
in  the  session  of  1833,  by  what  was  termed  "the  compromise  act,"  pro- 
posed by  Mr.  Clay  ;  and  South  Carolina,  though  she  was  not  convinced 
of  her  error,  made  no  further  attempt,  until  many  years  later,  to  put  her 
theories  into  practice. 

GEORGIA  AND  THE  CHEROKEE^S. 

The  President,  in  his  message  on  the  8th  of  December,  1829,  pre- 
sented at  considerable  length,  his  views  in  regard  to  the  disposal  of  the 
Indian  tribes  within  the  limits  of  the  United  States.  He  recommended 
their  removal  beyond  the  boundary  of  the  different  States,  but  without 
compulsion,  to  such  territory  west  of  the  Mississippi  as  Congress  might 
set  apart  for  their  use.  In  this  he  wished  to  avoid  the  difficulties  arising 
from  the  treaties  between  the  United  States  and  these  Indians,  and  the 
opposing  claims  of  the  States  within  whose  limits  the  Indians  resided. 
This  was  one  of  the  most  embarrassing  subjects  which  demanded  the 
attention  of  the  new  administration.  It  was  especially  applicable  to  the 
relation  which  the  Cherokees,  a  powerful  tribe  within  the  limits  of 
Georgia,  sustained  to  the  general  government. 


STORY  OK  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  1 63 

Treaties  had  been  made  with  this  tribe,  from  time  to  time,  ever  since 
the  adoption  of  the  Federal  Constitution.  In  these  treaties  the  protec- 
tion of  the  United  States  was  promised  them,  and  the  territory  they 
inhabited  was  acknowledged  to  be  theirs.  But  the  crovernment  had  also 
acknowledged  the  limits  of  Georgia,  and  had  agreed  to  extinguish  the 
Indian  title  whenever  it  could  be  peaceably  effected. 

Georgia,  in  her  anxiety  to  secure  the  Indian  territory,  had  passed 
laws,  from  time  to  time,  with  reference  to  that  object,  claiming  exclusive 
civil  and  criminal  jurisdiction  over  the  Indians.  In  this  state  of  things 
the  new  administration  came  in,  and  the  views  of  the  President  coinciding 
with  those  of  the  State  of  Georgia,  a  change  was  made  in  her  mode  of 
procedure.  She  was  allowed,  with  the  approbation  of  the  general 
government,  to  extend  her  laws  over  the  Cherokees,  and  to  consider  the 
treaties  of  the  United  States  with  them,  guaranteeing  their  territory,  as 
unconstitutional  and  void. 

Notwithstanding-  all  the  stringrent  measures  of  Georgia  the  Chero- 
kees  were  determined  to  remain  in  the  land  of  their  fathers.  But  at 
length,  in  1835,  a  few  of  their  chiefs  were  induced  to  sign  a  treaty  for  the 
sale  of  their  lands  and  a  removal  west  of  the  Mississippi.  Although  this 
treaty  was  opposed  by  a  majority  of  the  Cherokees,  and  the  terms  after- 
wards decided  upon  at  Washington  rejected,  yet,  as  the  State  of  Georgia 
was  determined  in  its  hostility,  and  they  could  expect  no  protection, 
according  to  the  new  doctrine,  from  the  general  government,  they  finally 
decided  upon  a  removal  ;  but  it  was  not  until  the  close  of  the  year  1838 
that  the  task  of  emigration  was  completed. 

NATIONAL  BANK. 

In  anticipation  of  a  request  for  the  renewal  of  the  charter  of  the 
United  States  Bank,  the  President,  in  his  message  to  Congress,  had 
expressed  opinions  adverse  to  that  measure.  But  the  standing  com- 
mittees of  the  Senate  and  House,  to  which  that  portion  of  his  message 
referred,  made  reports  in  opposition  to  the  President's  views.  The 
friends  of  the  administration  formed  a  majority  in  both  committees,  and 
it  was  readily  perceived  how  little  harmony  of  action  there  was  likely  to 
be,  on  that  subject,  between  the  President  and  the  party  which  had 
brought  him  into  power. 

About  four  years  anterior  to  the  expiration  of  the  existing  charter, 
that  is,  in  December,  1832,  a  memorial  was  presented  to  Congress  from 


104  STORY    OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

the  President  and  Directors  of  the  United  States  Bank,  for  a  renewal 
of  its  charter.  This  memorial  was  referred  to  a  select  committee,  which, 
on  the  13th  of  March  following,  reported  in  its  favor,  recommending  only 
some  limitations  to  the  power  of  issuing  notes  and  holding  real  property, 
also  the  payment  of  a  bonus  of  ^1,500,000.  After  long  debates  and 
various  amendments  a  bill  for  this  purpose  was  carried  in  the  Senate  by 
a  vote  of  twenty-eight  to  twenty,  and  in  the  House  by  a  vote  of  one 
hundred  and  seven  to  eighty-five ;  but,  being  on  the  4th  of  July  sent  to 
the  President,  it  was  returned  to  the  Senate  on  the  loth  of  July  with  an 
absolute  veto,  which,  not  being  opposed  by  two-thirds,  decided  the  fate 
of  the  bank. 

REMOVAL  or  THE  DEPOSITS. 

The  law  of  18 16,  which  created  the  United  States  Bank,  required 
that  the  public  moneys  should  be  deposited  in  that  bank,  subject  to  be 
removed  only  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  and  requiring  him,  in  that 
case,  to  present  his  reasons  for  removing  them  to  Congress.  Congress 
had  already  refused  to  authorize  the  removal  of  the  deposits,  and  the 
President  was  now  resolved  to  effect  it  on  his  own  responsibility.  The 
new  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  William  J.  Duane  (for  there  had  been 
some  recent  changes  in  the  Cabinet),  refusing  to  act  in  this  matter  and 
resigning  his  office,  the  Attorney-General,  Roger  B.Taney,  was  appointed 
in  his  place.  Mr.  Taney  immediately  issued  the  necessary  orders  for  the 
removal  of  the  deposits  from  the  United  States  Bank — a  measure  which 
resulted  from  the  President's  determination  to  break  off  all  connection 
between  the  government  and  the  bank. 

At  the  coming  session  of  Congress,  2d  of  December,  1833,  one  of 
the  first  acts  of  the  Senate  was  the  adoption  of  a  resolution,  by  a  vote 
of  twenty-six  to  twenty,  declaring  "that  the  President,  in  his  late  execu- 
tive proceedings  in  relation  to  the  public  revenue  had  assumed  upon 
himself  authority  and  power  not  conferred  by  the  Constitution  and  laws, 
but  in  derogation  of  both."  This  resolution  remained  on  the  journal 
until  January  15,  1837,  when  it  was  formally  expunged  by  order  of  the 
Senate. 

The  act  of  the  President,  and  the  measures  taken  by  the  United 
States  Bank,  occasioned  much  embarrassment  throucrhout  the  mercantile 
community  during  the  years  1834  and  1835.  Committees,  appointed  by 
the   merchants,   mechanics   and  tradesmen  of  the   principal   commercial 


STORY   OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS.  1 65 

cities,  solicited  the  President  to  replace  the  _or-overnment  deposits  in  the 
United  States  Bank.  But  he  resisted  every  solicitation.  Many  petitions 
were  sent  to  Congress  on  the  same  subject.  The  Senate  favorably 
received  them,  but  the  House  saw  fit  to  sustain  the  President  in  this 
measure. 

BLACK  HAWK  WAR. 

The  year  1832  was  signalized  by  the  Black  Hawk  War,  so  named 
for  the  famous  chief  of  the  Sac  and  Fox  Indian  tribes,  who  was  the 
leader  in  it.  These  tribes  had  joined  the  British  in  the  War  of  181 2, 
and  inflicted  much  injury  on  the  Americans.  Encouraged  by  the  friend- 
ship of  the  British,  as  well  as  incited  by  their  own  warlike  propensities, 
the  Sacs  and  Foxes  claimed  the  right  of  occupying  a  part  of  the  country 
upon  Rock  River,  even  after  it  had  been  sold  to  the  citizens  of  the 
United  States  and  the  latter  had  made  settlements  upon  it.  In  attempt- 
ing to  assert  this  right,  frequent  collisions  ensued  ;  and,  as  no  persua- 
sions on  the  part  of  the  agents  of  the  government  could  induce  them  to 
be  quiet  and  confine  themselves  to  their  own  country  on  the  west  of  the 
Mississippi,  measures  were  taken  to  compel  them  to  desist  from  their 
aggressions.  As  early  as  1831,  a  considerable  detachment  of  the  army, 
and  also  of  the  militia  of  Illinois,  was  called  into  the  field  ;  upon  which 
the  Indians  agreed  to  confine  themselves  within  their  own  proper  limits. 

In  a  short  time,  however,  this  arrangement  was  violated  by  a  party 
of  these  Indians  in  an  outrage  committed  upon  a  band  of  friendly 
Menomonies  in  the  very  vicinity'  of  Fort  Crawford.  Twenty-five  per- 
sons were  wantonly  killed  and  many  wounded  while  encamped  in  the 
village  of  Prairie  du  Chien  under  the  protection  of  our  flag.  It  was  felt 
by  the  government  that  this  aggression  could  not  be  passed  over  without 
the  infliction  of  a  due  chastisement,  as  all  was  at  stake  in  regard  to  the 
friendly  Indians  and  the  frontier  settlements  in  that  quarter.  Accord- 
ingly, the  department  ordered  General  Atkinson,  on  the  7th  of  March, 
1832,  to  ascend  the  Mississippi  with  the  disposable  regular  troops  at 
Jefferson  Barracks,  and  to  strengthen  the  frontiers  ;  orders  were  also 
given  for  the  re-occupation  of  Chicago. 

In  the  prosecution  of  his  instructions.  General  Atkinson  proceeded 
to  the  Indian  country,  where,  after  various  skirmishes  and  several  more 
serious  engagements,  the  Sacs  and  Foxes,  under  the  direction  of  Black 
Hawk,    fled   beyond   the   Mississippi.     On   the   28th   and   29th   of   July, 


l66  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

General  Atkinson  crossed  with  liis  army  to  the  north  side  of  the  Wis- 
consin, at  Helena,  in  pursuit  of  the  enemy.  After  a  most  difficult  and 
forced  march  over  steep  mountains  and  through  deep  ravines,  on  the  5th 
day  of  March  the  enemy  was  announced  by  one  of  the  scouts.  A  suit- 
able disposition  was  made  of  the  American  forces,  with  a  view  to  pre- 
vent the  escape  of  any  of  the  foe,  and  the  firing  commenced  as  the  dif- 
ferent portions  of  the  army  came  in  contact  with  him.  The  battle  lasted 
upwards  of  three  hours.  About  fifty  of  his  women  and  children  were 
taken  prisoners,  and  many  were  killed  in  the  battle.  When  the  Indians 
were  driven  to  the  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  some  hundreds  of  the  men, 
women  and  children  plunged  into  the  river,  and  hoped,  by  diving,  to 
escape  the  bullets.  Very  few,  however,  escaped — the  American  sharp- 
shooter is  nearly  infaUible  in  his  aim. 

Black  Hawk,  in  the  midst  of  the  battle,  escaped,  and  went  up  the 
river.  The  savages,  after  this  defeat,  became  convinced  of  the  impos- 
sibility of  contending  with  success  against  the  American  arms.  No  fur- 
ther serious  resistance  was  offered  on  their  part,  and  the  war  soon  closed 
by  the  capture  of  Black  Hawk,  who  was  delivered  up  to  the  American 
commander  by  two  Winnebagoes  on  the  27th  of  August.  He  was  well 
treated  and  much  noticed  in  the  United  States. 

SEMINOLE  WAR. 

The  Seminole  Indians  of  Florida,  near  the  close  of  the  year  1835, 
commenced  hostilities  against  the  settlements  of  the  whites  in  their  neigfh- 
borhood.  To  this  they  were  incited  by  the  attempt  of  the  government 
to  remove  the  Indians  to  lands  west  of  the  Mississippi,  in  accordance 
with  the  treaty  of  Payne's  Landing,  executed  in  1832.  That  treaty, 
however,  the  Indians  denied  to  be  justly  binding  upon  them,  and  they 
naturally  felt  a  strong  reluctance  to  quit  their  homes  forever.  Micanopy, 
the  king  of  the  Seminoles,  was  opposed  to  the  removal ;  and  Osceola, 
their  most  noted  warrior,  said  he  "wished  to  rest  in  the  land  of  his 
fathers,  and  his  children  to  rest  by  his  side." 

Osceola  was  cruelly  put  in  irons  by  General  Thompson,  the  govern- 
ment agent,  who  was  displeased  by  the  pretensions  of  the  chieftain  and 
his  remonstrances  against  the  governmental  proceedings.  He,  however, 
obtained  his  liberty  at  length  by  dissembling  his  displeasure,  and  gave 
his  confirmation  to  the  treaty  of  removal.     The  whites  were  thus  lulled 


STORY    OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 


167 


into  security,  and,  while  they  were  expecting  the  delivery  of  the  cattle 
and  horses  of  the  Indians  according  to  the  treaty,  the  latter  were 
already  commencing  the  work  of  devastation  and  death. 

At  this  time  Major  Dade  was  dispatched  from  Fort  Brooke,  at  the 
head  of  Tampa  Bay,  with  upwards  of  one  hundred  men,  to  the  assistance 
of  General  Clinch,  stationed  at  Fort  Drane,  in  the  interior  of  Florida. 
The  latter  was  supposed  to  be  in  imminent  danger.  Dade  had  proceeded 
only  about  half  the  distance  when  he  was  suddenly  attacked  by  the 
enemy,  and  he  and  all  except  tour  of  his  men  were  killed,  and  these 
four,  terribly  mangled,  afterwards  died  of  their  wounds. 

At  the  time  of  this  massacre,  Osceola,  with  a  small  band  of  warriors, 
was  lurking  in  the  vicinity  of  Fort  King,  about  sixty-five  miles  south-west 
from  St.  Augustine.  Here  General  Thompson  and  a  few  friends  were 
dining  at  a  store  near  the  fort  when  Osceola  and  his  band  surprised  them 
by  a  sudden  discharge  of  musketr)',  and  five  out  of  nine  were  killed. 
The  general  was  one  of  the  slain.  The  war  came  to  an  end  in  1836, 
the  Indians  being  subdued  and  removed  to  the  Indian  Territory,  west  of 
the  Mississippi  River. 

JACKSON  re:-elected. 

Mr.  Clay's  compromise  tariff  of  1832  averted  civil  war,  but  did  not 
prove  permanently  satisfactory.  In  the  fall  of  1832  a  new  presidential 
election  was  held,  and,  for  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  the  country, 
the  candidates  were  nominated  at  national  conventions  of  the  respective 
parties.  Before  that  time  they  had  been  nominated  by  congressional 
caucuses,  by  the  States'  Legislatures  or  by  local  conventions.  Three 
nominations  were  made  in  1832.  The  Democrats  renominated  Jackson  ; 
the  National  Republicans  or  Whigs,  nominated  Henry  Clay  ;  the  third 
party,  which  nominated  William  Wirt,  was  known  as  the  Anti-Masonic 
party.  It  had  its  origin  in  1826.  In  that  year  one  William  Morgan, 
living  in  the  western  part  of  New  York  State,  published  a  little  book 
purporting  to  reveal  some  of  the  secrets  of  Freemasonry.  Shortly  after- 
ward he  mysteriously  disappeared,  and  was  never  again  heard  of  His 
friends  immediately  raised  the  cry  that  he  had  been  kidnapped  and  mur 
dered  by  the  Freemasons,  and,  in  consequence,  a  political  party  was 
formed  designed  to  exclude  all  Freemasons  from  office,  if  not  from  citi- 
zenship. The  dead  body  of  a  man  was  afterward  found  in  a  river  where 
he  had  been  drowned,  and,  though  quite  unrecognizable,  was  declared 


1 68  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

by  the  Anti-Masons  to  be  that  of  Morgan.  Among  themselves  they 
admitted  that  it  might  not  be,  and,  indeed,  probably  was  not,  Morgan's 
body,  but  they  said  in  a  phrase  which  has  become  historic,  "It  is  a  good- 
enouofh  Morgan  until  after  election." 

FOREIGN  AFFAIRS. 

In  1834  the  country  was  disturbed  by  an  apprehension  of  a  hostile 
collision  with  France.  The  French  government,  by  a  treaty  negotiated 
in  1 83 1,  had  agreed  to  make  indemnity  for  spoliations  made  on  American 
commerce  during  the  reign  of  Napoleon,  but  it  had  failed  to  fulfill  its 
engagements.  The  President  recommended  (1834)  reprisals  upon  French 
commerce.  The  measure,  however,  was  not  adopted  by  Congress,  and 
the  danger  of  open  hostility  was  happily  removed  by  the  action  of  the 
French  government  in  making,  in  the  following  year,  provision  to 
fulfill   its  stipulations. 

The  public  debt  of  the  United  States  in  18 16,  after  the  close  of  the 
war  with  Great  Britain,  amounted  to  upwards  of  $127,000,000.  After 
the  return  of  peace  the  debt  was  rapidly  reduced,  and  in  1836,  it  having 
been  all  paid  off  it  was  computed  that  on  the  ist  of  January,  1837,  there 
would  remain  in  the  treasury  a  surplus  revenue  of  $27,000,000.  An  act 
was  passed  by  Congress  (1836)  for  distributing  this  surplus  (reserving 
$5,000,000),  to  be  paid,  in  four  instalments,  to  the  several  States,  in  pro- 
portion to  their  representation  in  the  Senate  and  House  of  Represen- 
tatives. 

The  admission  of  Arkansas  into  the  Union  as  a  State,  the  beginning 
of  Garrison's  anti-slavery  agitation,  and  the  conception  of  the  Anti- 
Slavery  Society,  date  from  the  closing  years  of  Jackson's  administration, 
though  more  is  to  be  heard  of  the  last  two  at  a  later  date. 

At  the  close  of  his  second  term  President  Jackson  acquiesced  in  the 
established  custom,  and  signified  his  intention  of  retiring  to  private  life. 
At  the  election  in  the  fall  of  1836,  Martin  Van  Buren,  of  New  York,  was 
chosen  to  succeed  him,  with  R.  M.  Johnson,  of  Kentucky,  as  Vice- 
President. 


1821— PIONEERS  CROSSING  THE  SIERRA  NEVADA  MOUNTAINS 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


Catholic  Emancipation  in  England — Wellington  Prime  Minister — Catholic 

Emancipation  Effected— End  of  the  Greek  Revolution — Russo-Turkish 

War  —  Troubles  in    France  —  Conquest  of  Algeria  —  Reaction   in 

France — The  Revolution  Begins — Flight  of  the  King— Belgian 

Revolution — Unrest   in    Poland  —  Outbreak   at  Warsaw — 

Russians   Routed — The   Fall  of  Poland — Reform  Law 

in    England  —  Triumph    of    Reform  —  Doings    in 

Various   Lands — The   Carlist   War. 


FOREMOST  among  the  political  questions  in  England  in  the 
third  decade  of  the  century  was  that  of  Catholic  emancipa- 
tion, so-called.  It  really  involved  the  granting  of  political 
rights  to  Roman  Catholics  and  to  Protestants  who  dissented 
from  the  Established  Church  of  England.  In  the  year  1824  an 
Irishman,  Daniel  O'Connell,  a  barrister  of  great  eloquence,  organ- 
ized the  "Catholic  Association,"  and  collected  a  "rent"  from  the 
Irish  people.  In  1825  a  relief  bill,  brought  in  by  Sir  Francis 
Burdett,  passed  the  Commons,  but  was  lost  in  the  Lords,  where  the 
Duke  of  York  uttered  a  solemn  oath  that,  if  he  came  to  the  throne, 
he  would  never  consent  to  the  repeal  of  the  Catholic  disabilities.  The 
Duke,  however,  died  on  the  5th  of  January,  1827,  and  in  February  the 
long  administration  of  Lord  Liverpool  was  ended  by  his  seizure  with 
paralysis.  The  King,  who  disliked  Canning  for  his  former  advocacy  of 
the  Catholic  claims,  felt  nevertheless  oblieed  to  receive  him  as  a  Pre- 
mier  (April  i,  1S27).  But  Canning  had  already  contracted  a  mortal  dis- 
ease at  the  funeral  of  the  Duke  of  York.  He  was  regarded  by  the 
aristocracy  as  an  upstart.  He  was  deserted  by  the  Duke  of  Welling- 
ton, Mr.  Peel,  Lord  Eldon,  and  the  old  Tory  party.  He  was  harassed 
by  his  false  position  between  the  opposition,  who  called  on  him  to  re- 
deem his  professions  in  favor  of  the  Catholics,  and  the  King,  who  de- 
clared that  he  should  break  his  coronation  oath  if  he  consented  to 
emancipation.  In  four  short  months  Canning  died  (Aug.  8,  1827). 
10  171 


172  SrORY    OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

He  was  buried  privately  in  Westminster  Abbey,  and  his  widow  was 
made  a  viscountess.  The  title  descended  to  his  son,  who  raised  it  to 
an  earldom  by  his  signal  services  in  India,  and  died,  like  his  father,  a 
martyr  to  the  public  service  (June,  1862). 

WELLINGTON.   PRIME   MINISTER. 

The  short  administration  of  Viscount  Goderich  (Aug.,  1827 — Jan., 
1828)  was  again  succeeded  by  that  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  with  Mr. 
Peel  as  Home  Secretary.  The  friends  of  Mr.  Canning — namely,  Mr. 
Huskisson,  Mr.  Lamb,  Mr.  Grant  and  Lord  Palmerston — afterward  left 
the  ministry.  It  was  under  this  Tory  Government  that  the  disabilities, 
both  of  the  Protestant  Dissenters  and  of  the  Roman  Catholics,  were  re- 
moved. Lord  John  Russell  (b.  Aug.  18,  1792),  the  younger  son  of  the 
Duke  of  Bedford,  and  the  faithful  inheritor  of  the  principles  for  which 
Lord  William  Russell  suffered  under  Charles  II,  moved  the  repeal  of  the 
Test  and  Corporation  acts  passed  under  that  King.  Mr.  Peel  was  left 
in  a  minority,  and  withdrew  his  opposition.  In  the  Lords  the  measure 
was  supported  by  Lord  Holland,  the  nephew  of  Charles  James  Fox,  and 
the  Duke  of  Sussex,  the  sixth  son  of  George  III.,  to  whom  his  consistent 
support  of  civil  and  religious  liberty  had  been  most  distasteful,  as  it  now 
was  to  George  IV.  The  passing  of  this  act  gave  a  new  stimulus  to  the 
agitation  for  Catholic  relief  The  crisis  was  brought  on  by  the  election 
of  O'Connell  for  the  county  of  Clare.  The  Duke  of  Wellington  was 
convinced  that  his  choice  lay  between  concession  and  a  civil  war,  the 
horrors  of  which  he  deprecated  with  deep  feeling  ;  and  his  ministry  an- 
nounced a  measure  for  the  relief  of  the  Catholics  in  the  King's  speech 
(1829).  Mr.  Peel,  who  had  always  opposed  the  Catholic  claims,  was  re- 
jected by  his  constituents  of  the  University  of  Oxford  in  favor  of  Sir 
Robert  Harry  Inglis,  a  kind-hearted,  simple-minded  Tory,  who  always 
held  that  "wherever  the  King  carried  his  flag,  there  he  should  carry  his 
church."  Peel  came  back  to  the  House  as  member  for  Westbury,  and 
introduced  the  bill,  which  passed  the  Lords  on  April  10,  after  earnest 
opposition.  Lord  Eldon  was  moved  to  tears,  and  Lord  Winchelsea 
came  forward  as  the  champion  of  religion  in  a  duel  with  the  Duke  of 
Wellington.  The  act  opened  Parliament  and  offices  of  State  to  the 
Catholics  on  their  taking  a  new  oath  in  place  of  the  oath  of  supremacy  ; 
but  they  were  excluded  from   the   offices  of  Regent,  Viceroy  of  Ireland, 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  I73 

and  Lord  Chancellor  both  in  Engrland  and  Ireland.  The  exclusion  from 
the  crown,  and  its  forfeiture  by  marriage  with  a  Catholic,  remained  in 
force.  The  words  of  the  new  oath,  "on  the  true  faith  of  a  Christian," 
had  the  effect  of  excluding  the  Jews  from  Parliament  until  1858,  when 
they  were  admitted. 

CATHOLIC   EMANCIPATION    EFFECTED. 

The  King  gave  his  assent  to  the  bill,  but  showed  a  resentment 
against  the  ministry,  which  was  shared  by  the  Tory  party.  Their  violent 
opposition,  in  concert  with  the  Radicals,  was  only  neutralized  by  the  sup- 
port of  the  Whigs,  which  enabled  Peel  to  carry  some  valuable  measures, 
among  which  was  the  formation  of  the  new  police  (1830).  •  He  had  pre- 
viously mitigated  the  criminal  law  ;  and  Mr.  Broughani  had  moved  (Feb., 
1828),  in  a  speech  of  surpassing  eloquence,  for  a  commission  on  the 
state  of  the  law,  which  led  to  most  important  reforms.  But  the  rejection 
of  Lord  John  Russell's  motion  to  give  members  to  the  great  manufac- 
turing towns  of  Birmingham,  Manchester  and  Leeds,  left  the  question 
of  parliamentary  reform  to  be  settled  in  the  next  reign.  Meanwhile  the 
King  was  living  in  peevish  seclusion  at  Windsor,  where  he  died  on  the 
26th  of  June,  1830,  in  the  68th  year  of  his  age  and  the  nth  of  his 
reign,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  next  surviving  brother,  William 
Henry  Duke  of  Clarence. 

END  OF  THE  GREEK   REVOLUTION. 

The  battle  of  Navarino  and  accompanying  events,  recorded  in  a 
former  chaper,  practically  ended  the  Greek  revolution  and  gave  thatcoun 
try  independence.  The  provisional  government  of  Greece,  which  had 
been  organized  during  the  revolution,  was  agitated  by  discontents  and 
jealousies.  For  some  time  the  country  remained  in  an  unsettled  condi- 
tion, and  the  President,  Count  Capo  d'Istria,  was  assassinated  in  October, 
1 83 1.  The  allied  powers  having  previously  determined  to  erect  Greece 
into  a  monarchy,  fir  ,t  offered  the  crown  to  Prince  Leopold  of  Saxe-Co- 
burg  (since  King  of  Belgium),  who  declined  it  on  account  of  the  unwil- 
lingness of  the  Greeks  to  receive  him,  and  their  dissatisfaction  with 
the  boundaries  prescribed  by  the  allied  powers.  Finally  the  crown 
was  conferred  on  Otho,  a  Bavarian  Prince,  who  arrived  at  Nauplia 
in   1833. 


174  STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

RUSSO-TURKISH   WAR. 

Russia  continued  her  aggressions  upon  Turkey.  In  1829  the  com- 
mand of  the  Russian  army  in  European  Turkey  was  given  to  Diebitsch, 
a  native  of  Silesia.  He  left  behind  him,  under  guard,  the  Turkish  for- 
tresses which  his  predecessor  had  vainly  tried  to  reduce,  and  pressed  on 
to  and  across  the  Balkans.  His  was  the  first  Russian  army  that  ever 
crossed  the  Balkans  and  approached  Constantinople.  On  reaching 
Adrianople,  however,  his  army  was  found  to  be  so  weakened  by  fatigue 
and  disease  that  it  mustered  only  13,000  men.  A  vigorous  attack  by  the 
Turks  would  have  ensured  his  annihilation.  Fortunately  for  him,  how- 
ever, the  Turks  entered  into  negotiations  for  peace,  and  a  treaty  was 
concluded.  Russia  resigned  all  conquests  except  some  islands  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Danube  and  a  small  strip  of  territory  in  Asia,  acquisi- 
tions, however,  of  much  strategic  importance.  The  Hospodars  of  Mol- 
davia and  Wallachia  were  to  be  appointed  for  life,  and  were  to  be  practi- 
cally independent  of  Turkey.  No  Turk  was  to  reside  in  those  prov- 
inces, which  were  made  a  protectorate  of  Russia.  Thus  was  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  present  great  kingdom  of  Roumania.  The  navigation 
of  the  Danube  was  to  be  free,  and  the  Dardanelles  were  to  be  open  to 
the  ships  of  neutral  powers. 

In  1829,  through  the  close  intercourse  of  the  Western  powers  with 
Turkey,  the  dreadful  scourge  of  Asiatic  cholera  was  first  introduced  into 
Europe,  where  it  made  hideous  ravages,  and  whence  it  was  later  trans- 
ferred to  the  United  States. 

TROUBLES   IN   FRANCE. 

Meantime,  Charles  X  of  France  was  hastening  to  his  fall.  The 
liberal  ministry,  which  the  popular  party  had  forced  upon  the  king,  was 
suddenly  dismissed,  and  in  August,  1829,  an  ultra-royalist  ministry  was 
appointed,  at  the  head  of  which  was  Prince  Polignac,  one  of  the  old 
royalists,  and  an  early  adherent  to  the  Bourbons. 

At  the  opening  of  the  Chambers  in  March,  1830,  the  speech  from 
the  throne  plainly  announced  the  determination  of  the  king  to  overcome 
by  force  any  obstacles  that  might  be  interposed  in  the  way  of  his 
government,  concluding  with  the  threat  of  resuming  the  concessions 
made  by  the  charter.  As  soon  as  the  speech  was  made  public  the  funds 
fell  ;  the  ministers  had  a  decided  majority  opposed  to  them  in  the  Cham- 


>• 

< 

W 
O 

Q 
Z 

< 

w 


a 
z 

D 

ta 

X 

u, 

Z 


UJ 


X 
■r. 

< 


Z 

o 


'Si 

< 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  177 

bcr  of  Deputies,  and  a  spirited  reply  was  made,  declaring  that  "a  con- 
currence did  not  exist  between  the  views  of  the  Government  and  the 
wishes  of  the  people  ;  that  the  administration  was  actuated  by  a  distrust 
of  the  nation,  and  that  the  nation,  on  the  other  hand,  was  agitated  with 
apprehensions  which  threatened  its  prosperity  and  repose."  The  king 
then  prorogued  the  Chambers,  and  on  the  17th  of  May  a  royal  ordinance 
declared  them  dissolved  and  ordered  new  elections — measures  that  pro- 
duced the  greatest  excitement  throughout  France. 

CONQUEST  OF  ALGERIA. 

In  the  meantime,  the  king  and  his  ministers,  hoping  to  facilitate  their 
projects  and  overcome  their  unpopularity  by  gratifying  the  taste  of  the 
French  people  for  military  glory,  declared  war  against  Algiers,  the  Dey 
having  refused  to  pay  long-standing  claims  of  French  citizens,  and  having 
insulted  the  honor  of  France  by  striking  the  French  consul  when  the 
latter  was  paying  him  a  visit  of  ceremony.  A  fleet  of  ninety-seven  ves- 
sels, carrying  more  than  forty  thousand  soldiers,  embarked  at  Toulon  on 
the  loth  of  May,  on  the  14th  of  June  effected  a  landing  on  the  African 
coast,  and  on  the  5th  of  July  compelled  Algiers  to  capitulate  after  a 
feeble  resistance.  The  Dey  was  allowed  to  retire  unmolested  to  Italy, 
and  his  vast  treasures  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  conquerors. 

REACTION  IN  FRANCE. 

The  success  of  the  French  arms  in  Africa  occasioned  great  exulta- 
tion in  France,  but  did  nothing  towards  allaying  the  excited  state  of 
public  feeling  against  the  detested  ministry.  The  elections  ordered  to 
be  held  in  June  and  the  early  part  of  July  resulted  in  a  large  increase 
of  opposition  members,  and  the  ministerial  party  was  left  in  a  miserable 
minority.  The  infatuated  ministry,  however,  instead  of  withdrawing, 
madly  resolved  to  set  the  voice  of  the  nation  at  defiance,  and  to  even 
subvert  the  constitutional  privileges  granted  by  the  charter.  They 
therefore  induced  the  king  to  publish,  on  the  morning  of  the  26th  of 
July,  three  royal  ordinances,  the  first  dissolving  the  newly-elected  Cham- 
ber of  Deputies,  the  second  changing  the  law  of  elections,  sweeping 
off  three-fourths  of  the  former  constituency,  and  nearly  extinguishing 
the  representative  system,  and  the  third  suspending  the  liberty  of  the 
press.     In  the  ministerial  report,  published  at  the  same  time  with  these 


178  STURY    UF   ONE    UUMJKED    YEARS. 

ordinances,  the  ministers  argued,  in  favor  of  the  latter  measure,  that  "at 
all  epochs  the  periodical  press  had  only  been,  and  from  its  nature  must 
ever  be,  an  instrument  of  disorder  and  sedition!" 

In  defiance  of  these  ordinances,  the  conductors  of  the  liberal  jour- 
nals determined  to  publish  their  papers,  and  on  the  evening  of  the  same 
day,  the  26th,  they  published  an  address  to  their  countrymen,  declaring 
that  "  the  Government  stripped  itself  of  the  character  of  law,  and  was 
no  longer  entitled  to  their  obedience" — language  that  would  probably 
have  exposed  them  to  the  penalties  of  treason  if  the  contest  had  termi- 
nated differently.  It  was  late  in  the  day  before  intelligence  of  the  arbi- 
trary measures  of  Government  was  generally  circulated  through  Paris  ; 
then  crowds  began  to  assemble  in  the  streets,  cries  of  "  Down  with  the 
Ministry!"  and  "The  Cliarter  Forever!"  were  heard;  fearless  orators 
harangued  the  people,  and  during  the  night  the  lamps  in  several  of  the 
streets  were  demolished,  and  the  windows  of  the  hotel  of  Polignac 
broken.  So  little  had  the  king  anticipated  any  popular  outbreak,  that 
he  passed  the  day  of  the  26th  in  the  amusements  of  the  chase  ;  and  it 
appears  that  the  infatuated  ministry  had  not  even  dreamed  of  a  revolu- 
tion as  the  consequence  of  their  obnoxious  measures. 

THE   REVOLUTION   BEGINS. 

On  the  morning  of  the  27th  several  of  the  journalists  printed  and 
distributed  their  papers,  but  their  doors  were  soon  closed  and  their 
presses  broken  by  the  police.  This  morning  the  king  appointed  Marshal 
Marmont  commander-in-chief  of  the  forces  in  Paris,  but  it  was  not  till 
four  in  the  afternoon  that  orders  were  given  to  put  the  troops  under 
arms,  when  they  were  marched  to  different  stations  to  aid  the  police  and 
overawe  the  people.  The  latter  then  began  to  arm  ;  some  skirmishing 
occurred  with  the  troops  ;  during  the  night  the  lamps  throughout  the  city 
were  demolished,  and,  under  cover  of  the  darkness,  many  of  the  streets 
were  barricaded  with  paving  stones  torn  up  for  the  purpose.  At  the 
close  of  the  day  Marmont  had  informed  the  king  that  tranquillity  was 
restored,  and  therefore  no  additional  troops  were  sent  for,  nor  were  the 
great  depots  of  arms  and  ammunition  guarded. 

At  an  early  hour  on  the  morning  of  the  28th  armed  multitudes 
appeared  on  the  streets,  and  numbers  of  the  National  Guard,  which  the 
king   had   pn'viously  disbanded,  appeared  in   their  uniforms  among  the 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  179 

thronsj,  and  with  therii  the  famous  tricolored  flao;  so  dear  to  the  hearts  oi 
all  Frenchmen.  To  the  surprise  of  Marmont,  the  king  and  the  ministry, 
the  riot  which  on  the  previous  evening  they  had  thought  suppressed  had 
assumed  the  formidable  aspect  of  a  revolution.  By  nine  o'clock  the  flag 
of  the  people  waved  on  the  pinnacles  of  Notre  Dame,  and  at  eleven  sur- 
mounted the  central  tower  of  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  which  was  afterwards, 
however,  retaken  by  the  ro)al  troops.  Marmont  showed  great  indecision 
in  his  movements  ;  his  columns  were  everywhere  assailed  with  musketry 
from  the  barricades,  from  the  windows  of  houses,  from  the  corners  of  the 
streets  and  from  the  narrow  alleys  and  passages  which  abound  in  Paris, 
and  paving  stones  and  other  missiles  were  showered  upon  them  from  the 
housetops.  The  royal  guards  were  disheartened  ;  the  troops  of  the  line 
showed  great  reluctance  to  fire  upon  the  citizens,  and  the  28th  closed 
with  the  withdrawal  of  the  royal  forces  from  every  position  in  which  they 
had  attempted  to  establish  themselves  during  the  day. 

FLIGHT  OF  THE   KING. 

The  contest  was  renewed  early  on  the  morning  of  the  third  day, 
when  several  distinguished  military  characters  appeared  as  leaders  of  the 
people,  and  among  them  General  Lafayette,  who  took  command  of  the 
National  Guard  ;  but,  while  the  issue  was  yet  doubtful,  several  regiments 
of  the  Hne  went  over  to  the  insurgents,  who,  thus  strengthened  and 
encouraged,  rushed  upon  the  Louvre  and  the  Tuileries  and  speedily 
overcame  the  troops  stationed  there.  So  sudden  was  the  assault  that 
Marmont  himself  with  difficulty  escaped,  leaving  behind  him  more  than 
twenty  thousand  dollars  of  the  public  funds.  About  half-past  three  p.  m. 
the  last  of  the  military  posts  in  Paris  surrendered,  the  royal  troops  who 
escaped  having  in  the  meantime  retreated  to  St.  Cloud,  where  were  the 
king  and  the  ministry,  now  in  consternation  for  their  own  safety.  The 
revolution  was  speedily  completed  by  the  installation  of  a  provisional 
government.  On  the  31st  Louis  Philippe,  Duke  of  Orleans,  the  most 
popular  of  the  royal  family,  accepted  the  office  of  Lieutenant-General 
of  the  Kingdom  ;  when  the  chambers  met  he  was  elected  to  the  throne,  ■ 
and  on  the  9th  of  August  took  the  oath  to  support  the  constitutional 
charter. 

The  results  of  the  revolutionary  movement  in  France  and  the  over 
throw  of  the  elder  branch  of  the  Bourbons,  in  defiance  of  the  cruarantee 


iSO  STOKV    Ol-'    ONE    IILNUKEU    VEAKS. 

of  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  spread  alarm  among  the  sovereigns  of  Conti- 
nental Europe,  and  the  Emperor  of  Russia  went  so  far  as  not  only  to 
hesitate  about  acknowledging  the  title  of  the  citizen  King  of  France,  but, 
it  is  believed,  was  prepared  to  support  the  claims  of  the  exiled  Charles  X, 
when  the  popular  triumph  in  England,  in  the  passage  of  the  Reform  Bill 
in  1832,  by  converting  a  former  ally  into  an  enemy,  raised  up  obstacles 
that  arrested  his  measures.  Charles  X,  after  having  abdicated  the  throne, 
was  permitted  to  retire,  unmolested,  from  France  ;  but  the  Ministers, 
attempting  to  escape,  were  arrested  and  afterwards  brought  to  trial, 
when  three  of  them,  including  Polignac,  were  declared  guilty  of  treason 
and  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  life.  At  the  end  of  si.x  years  they 
were  released  from  confinement — indignation  towards  them  having  given 
place  to  pity. 

BELGIAN  REVOLUTION. 

The  French  Revolution  of  1830  produced  a  powerful  sensation 
throughout  Europe,  and  aroused  an  insurrectionary  spirit  wherever  the 
people  complained  of  real  or  fancied  wrongs,  while  the  continental  sover- 
eigns, on  the  other  hand,  alarmed  for  the  safety  of  their  thrones,  looked 
with  jealousy  upon  every  political  movement  that  originated  with  the 
people,  and  prepared  to  suppress,  by  military  force,  the  incipient  efforts 
of  rebellion.  The  Belgians,  who  had  been  compelled  by  the  Congress  of 
Vienna  to  unite  with  the  Hollanders  in  forming  the  kingdom  of  the 
Netherlands,  having  long  been  goaded  by  unjust  laws  and  treated  rather 
as  vassals  than  as  subjects  of  the  Dutch  King,  judging  the  period  favor- 
able for  dissolving  their  union  with  a  people  foreign  to  them  in  language, 
manners  and  interests,  arose  in  insurrection  at  Brussels  in  the  latter  part 
of  August,  1830,  and,  after  a  contest  of  four  days'  duration,  drove  the 
Dutch  authorities  and  garrison  from  the  city. 

In  vain  were  efforts  made  by  the  Prince  of  Orange  to  reconcile  the 
conflicting  demands  of  the  Dutch  and  the  Belgians,  and  again  unite  the 
two  people  under  one  government.  The  proposals  of  the  Prince  were 
disavowed  by  his  father,  the  King  of  Holland,  and  equally  rejected  by 
the  Belgians  ;  and  on  the  4th  of  October  the  latter  made  a  formal  decla- 
ration of  their  independence.  Soon  after  the  representatives  of  the  five 
great  powers,  France,  Great  Britain,  Prussia,  Russia  and  Austria,  assem- 
bled at  London,  agreed  to  a  protocol  in  favor  of  an  armistice,  and 
directed  that  hostilities  should  cease  between  the  Dutch  and  the  Belgians. 


STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS.  iSl 

The  Belgians  having  decided  upon  a  constitutional  monarchy,  first  offered 
the  crown  to  the  Duke  of  Nemours,  the  second  son  of  Louis  PhiHppe, 
but  the  latter  declined  the  proffered  honor  on  behalt  of  his  son  ;  after 
which  the  Belgian  Congress  elected  Leopold,  Prince  of  Saxe-Coburg 
Gotha,  for  their  King.  As  the  Dutch  continued  to  hold  the  city  of 
Antwerp,  contrary  to  the  determination  of  the  five  great  powers,  a 
French  army  of  65,000  men,  under  Marshal  Gerard,  entered  Belgium  in 
November,  1832,  and  after  encountering  an  obstinate  defence  compelled 
the  surrender  of  the  place  on  the  24th  of  December.  Since  her  separa- 
tion from  Holland,  Belgium  has  increased  rapidly  in  every  industrial 
pursuit  and  social  improvement. 

UNREST  IN  POLAND. 

By  the  decrees  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna  most  of  that  part  of 
Poland  which  Napoleon  had  erected  into  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Warsaw 
and  conferred  upon  his  ally  the  King  of  Saxony,  was  re-established  as  an 
independent  kingdom,  to  be  united  to  the  crown  of  Russia,  but  with  a 
separate  constitution  and  administration  ;  on  the  20th  of  June,  181 5,  the 
Russian  Emperor  Alexander  was  proclaimed  King  of  Poland.  The  mild 
character  of  Alexander  had  inspired  the  Poles  with  the  hopes  that  he 
would  protect  them  in  the  enjoyment  of  their  liberties  ;  but  his  fine  pro- 
fessions soon  began  to  prove  delusive  ;  ere  long  none  but  Russians  held 
the  chief  places  of  government ;  the  article  of  the  constitution  establishing 
liberty  of  the  press  was  nullified  ;  publicity  of  debate  in  the  Polish  diet 
was  abolished  ;  and  numerous  State  prosecutions  embittered  the  feeling 
of  the  Poles  against  their  tyrants. 

On  the  accession  of  Nicholas  to  the  throne  of  Russia,  in  December, 
1825,  although  the  Lieutenancy  of  Poland  was  entrusted  to  a  Pole,  yet 
the  real  power  was  invested  in  the  King's  brother,  the  Archduke  Con- 
stantine,  who  held  the  appointment  of  Commander-in-Chief  of  the  army. 
Constantine  proved  to  be  the  worst  of  tyrants — a  second  Sejanus — 
delighting  in  ever)-  species  of  judicial  iniquity  and  ministerial  cruelty. 
The  barbarities  of  Constantine,  sanctioned  by  Nicholas,  revived  the  old 
spirit  of  Polish  freedom  and  nationality  ;  and  the  successful  examples  of 
France  and  Belgium  roused  the  Poles  again  to  action.  Secret  societies, 
organized  for  the  express  purpose  of  securing  the  liberty  of  Poland  and 
uniting  again  under  one  government  those  portions  that  had  been  torn 


l82  STOUY  OP"  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

asunder  and  despoiled  by  the  rapacity  of  Russia,  Prussia  and  Austria, 
existed  not  only  in  Poland  proper  and  Lithuania,  but  also  in  Volhynia 
and  Podolia,  and  even  in  the  old  provinces  of  Ukraine,  which,  it  might  be 
supposed,  had  long  since  lost  all  recollections  of  Polish  glory. 

OUTBREAK  AT  WARSAW. 

The  fear  of  detection  and  arrest  on  the  part  of  some  members  of  one  of 
these  societies,  led  to  the  first  outbreak  at  Warsaw,  on  the  evening  of  the 
29th  of  November,  1830.  The  students  of  a  military  school  at  Warsaw, 
one  hundred  and  eighty  in  number,  at  first  attempted  to  seize  Constantine 
at  his  quarters,  two  miles  from  the  city  ;  but  during  the  struggle  with  his 
attendants,  of  whom  the  Russian  General  Gendre,  a  man  infamous  for 
his  crimes,  was  killed,  the  Duke  escaped  to  his  guards,  who,  being 
attacked  in  a  position  from  which  retreat  was  difficult,  lost  three  hundred 
of  their  number,  when  the  students  returned  to  the  city,  liberated  every 
State  prisoner,  and  were  joined  by  the  school  of  the  engineers  and  the 
students  of  the  university.  A  party  entered  the  only  two  theatres  open, 
calling  out,  "Women  home — men  to  arms!"  The  arsenal  was  next 
forced,  and  in  one  hour  and  a  half  from  the  first  movement  40,000  men 
were  in  arms.  Constantine  fell  back  to  the  frontier.  Chlopiki  was  first 
appointed  by  the  provisional  government  Commander-in-Chief  of  the 
army  of  Poland,  and  afterwards  was  made  Dictator ;  but  he  soon 
resigned,  and  Adam  Czartoriski  was  appointed  President. 

RUSSIANS  ROUTED. 

After  two  months'  delay  in  fruitless  attempts  to  negotiate  with  the 
Emperor  Nicholas,  who  refused  all  terms  but  absolute  submission,  the 
inevitable  conflict  began — Russia  already  having  assembled  an  army  of 
200,000  men  under  the  command  of  Field  Marshal  Diebitsch,  the  hero 
of  the  Turkish  war,  while  the  Poles  had  only  50,000  men  equipped  for 
the  fight.  On  the  5  th  of  February,  1831,  the  Russians  crossed  the  Polish 
frontier  ;  on  the  i8th  their  advanced  post  were  within  ten  miles  of  W;.r- 
saw  ;  and  on  the  20th  a  general  action  was  brought  on,  which  resulted 
in  the  Poles  retiring  in  good  order  from  the  field  of  battle.  On  the  25th 
40,000  Poles,  under  Prince  Radzvil,  withstood  the  shock  of  more  than 
100,000  of  the  enemy  ;  and  at  the  close  of  the  day  10,000  of  the  Russians 
lay  dead  on  the  field,  and  several  thousand  prisoners  were  taken. 


STORY    OF    UNE    IILNUULD    YEaKS.  IQ3 

Skryzriecki,  being  now  appointed  Commander-in-Chief  of  die  Polish 
forces,  concerted  several  night  attacks  for  the  evening  of  the  31st,  which 
resulted  in  the  total  rout  of  20,000  Russians  and  the  capture  of  a  vast 
quantity  of  muskets,  cannon  and  ammunition.  These  successes  were  so 
rapidly  followed  up  that  before  the  end  of  April  the  Russians  were  driven 
either  across  the  Bug  into  their  own  territories  or  northward  into  the 
Prussian  dominions.  The  conduct  of  Prussia  in  affording  the  Russians  a 
secure  retreat  on  neutral  territory  and  furnishing  them  with  abundant 
supplies,  while  in  similar  cases  the  Poles  were  detained  as  prisoners, 
destroyed  all  advantages  of  Polish  valor.  Austria,  likewise,  permitted 
the  Russians  to  pass  over  neutral  ground  to  outflank  the  Poles,  but 
detained  the  latter  as  prisoners  if  they  once  set  foot  on  Austrian  terri- 
tory. Thus  Russia  and  Austria  interpreted  and  enforced  the  principles 
of  the  "  Holy  Alliance." 

THE  FALL  OF   POLAND. 

While  the  Poles  were  stationed  at  Minsk,  Skryznecki,  uniting  all  his 
forces  in  that  vicinity,  to  the  number  of  20,000,  suddenly  crossed  the  Bug 
and  forced  his  way  to  Ostrolenk,  a  distance  of  80  miles,  where,  on  the 
26th  of  May,  he  engaged  in  batde  with  60,000  Russians.  The  combat 
was  terrific  ;  no  quarter  was  asked  and  none  was  given.  The  Poles, 
led  by  the  heroic  General  Bem,  lost  one-fourth  of  their  number.  The 
loss  of  the  Russians  was  less  in  proportion,  but  they  had  three  generals 
killed  on  the  field.  In  the  following  month  both  the  Russian  Com- 
mander-in-Chief, Marshal  Diebitsch,  and  the  Archduke  Constantine,  died 
suddenly.  About  the  same  time  a  conspiracy  for  setting  at  liberty  all 
the  Russian  prisoners,    13,000  in  number,  was  detected  in  Warsaw. 

Dissensions  among  the  Polish  chiefs  and  the  want  of  energetic  gov- 
ernment soon  produced  their  natural  consequences  of  divided  counsels 
and  disunited  efforts  in  the  field  ;  and  by  the  6th  of  September,  during 
the  strife  of  factions  at  Warsaw,  a  Russian  army  of  100,000  men,  sup- 
ported by  300  pieces  of  cannon,  had  assembled  for  the  storming  of  the 
city.  Although  defended  with  heroism,  after  two  days'  fighting,  in  which 
the  Russians  had  20,000  slain,  and  the  Poles  about  half  that  number, 
Warsaw  surrendered  to  the  Russian  general,  Paskewitch — the  main  body 
of  the  Polish  army  and  the  most  distinguished  citizens  retiring  from  the 
city,  and  afterwards  dispersing  when  no  further  hopes  remained  of  serv- 
ing their  ill-fated  country.      Large  numbers  crossed  the  frontiers  and  went 


184  STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

into  voluntary  exile  in  other  lands.  Most  of  the  Polish  generals  who 
surrendered  under  an  amnesty  were  sent  to  distant  parts  of  the  Russian 
Empire  ;  and  the  soldiers,  and  the  Polish  nobility  were  consigned  by 
thousands  to  the  dungeons  and  mines  of  Siberia. 

REFORM    LAW   IN    ENGLAND. 

At  the  time  of  the  accession  of  William  IV  of  England,  in  1830,  a 
Tory  ministry,  headed  by  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  was  in  power  ;  but 
decided  sentiment  of  the  nation  in  favor  of  reform  in  all  the  branches  of 
government  occasioned  its  resignation  in  November  of  the  same  year. 
A  Whig  ministry,  pledged  for  reform,  with  Earl  Grey  at  its  head,  then 
came  into  power;  and  on  the  ist  of  March  of  the  following  year,  Lord 
John  Russell  brought  forward  in  Parliament  the  ministerial  plan  for  re- 
forming the  representation  of  England,  Scotland  and  Ireland,  which,  if 
adopted,  would  extend  the  right  of  suffrage  to  half  a  million  additional 
voters,  disfranchise  fifty-six  of  the  so-called  rotten  or  decayed  boroughs, 
and  more  nearly  equalize  representation  throughout  the  kingdom.  After 
a  long  but  animated  debate,  the  bill  passed  a  second  reading  in  the 
House  of  Commons  by  a  majority  of  only  one,  but  was  lost  on  the 
third  reading,  the  vote  being  291   for  the  bill,  and  299  against  it. 

By  advice  of  the  ministers  the  King  hastily  dissolved  Parliament, 
and  ordered  new  elections  for  the  purpose  of  better  ascertaining  the 
sense  of  the  people.  The  elections  took  place  amid  great  excitement, 
and  the  advocates  of  reform  were  returned  by  nearly  all  the  large  con- 
stituencies. The  new  Parliament  was  opened  on  the  14th  of  June,  1831. 
The  reform  bill,  being  again  introduced,  passed  the  Commons  by  a  ma- 
jority of  113,  but  was  rejected  by  the  Lords,  whose  numbers  remained 
unchanged,  by  a  majority  of  41.  The  rejection  of  the  bill  by  the  Lords 
led  to  strong  manifestations  of  popular  resentment  against  the 
nobility  ;  serious  riots  occured  in  Nottingham  and  Derby  ;  and  at  Bristol 
many  public  buildings  and  an  immense  amount  of  private  property  were 
destroyed,  ninety  persons  were  killed  or  wounded  ;  five  of  the  rioters 
were  afterwards  executed,  and  many  were  sentenced  to  transportation. 

TRIUMPH   OF   REFORM. 

On  the  1 2th  of  December  Lord  John  Russell  a  third  time  introduced 
a  reform  bill  similar  to  the  former  two  ;  and  on  the  23d  of  March,  1832, 


STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS.  1 87 

it  passed  the  Commons  by  a  majority  of  ii6,  but  was  defeated  in  the 
House  of  Lords  by  a  majority  of  40.  The  ministry  now  advised  the 
King  to  create  a  sufficient  number  of  peers  to  insure  the  passage  of 
the  bill  ;  and  on  his  refusal  to  proceed  to  such  extremities,  all  the 
members  of  the  cabinet  resigned.  Political  unions  were  now  formed 
throughout  the  country.  The  people  determined  to  refuse  payment  of 
taxes,  and  demanded  that  the  ministers  should  be  reinstated.  There 
were  no  riots,  but  the  people  had  risen  in  their  collective  strength,  de- 
termined to  assert  their  just  rights.  The  King  yielded  to  the  force  of 
public  opinion,  and  Earl  Grey  and  his  colleagues  were  reinstated  in 
office,  with  the  assurance  that,  if  necessary^  a  sufficient  number  of  new 
peers  should  be  created  to  secure  the  passing  of  the  bill.  When  the 
Lords  were  apprised  of  this  fact  they  withdrew  their  opposition  ;  but  it 
is  worthy  of  remark  that  many  of  them,  and  all  the  bishops,  left  their 
seats  on  the  final  passage  of  the  bills,  which,  having  been  rapidly  hurried 
through  both  houses,  received  the  royal  assent  on  the  7th  of  June. 

DOINGS    IN    VARIOUS    LANDS. 

Revolutionary  disturbances  occurred  in  1831  in  Modena  and  the 
Papal  States,  which  were  suppressed  by  Austrian  inter\'ention.  In  that 
year  Charles  Albert  succeeded  Charles  Felix  as  King  of  Sardinia,  and 
thus  another  step  was  taken  toward  the  ultimate  reunion  and  rehabilita- 
tion of  Italy.     Gregory  XVI  was  elected  Pope  in  February,  1831. 

The  first  disturbance  in  the  East  after  the  treaty  of  Adrianople  was 
caused  by  the  ambition  of  Mehemet  Ali,  of  Egypt.  He  had  received 
the  gift  of  the  island  of  Crete  in  return  for  his  aid  to  Turkey  against 
Greece,  but  he  soon  sought  further  acquisitions.  In  1831  he  picked  a 
quarrel  with  the  Pacha  of  Acre  and  invaded  Syria.  The  Sultan  sent  an 
army  against  him,  but  the  Turks  were  completely  routed  at  Konieh  on 
the  2 1st  of  December,  1832.  Constantinople  itself  was  threatened,  and 
the  Sultan  begged  the  European  powers  to  save  him  from  the  Egyptian 
conqueror.  Russia  responded,  but  England  and  France  sided  with 
Mehemet  Ali.  In  the  end  a  treaty  was  concluded  by  which  Mehemet 
was  confirmed  in  his  possession  of  Crete,  and  was  made  sovereien  of 
Syria  under  the  shadowy  suzerainty  of  the  Sultan.  Enraged  at  such 
action  by  the  Western  powers,  the  Sultan  at  once  made  the  secret  treat)'^ 
of  Unkiar  Skelessi  with  Russia  on   the  8th  of  July,  1833,  by  which  Tur- 


1 88  STUKY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

key  was  placed  practically  under  Russian  protection,  and  the  Dardanelles 
were  to  be  closed  against  all  but  Russian  vessels. 

Abd-el-Kader,  the  great  chieftain  of  Algeria,  made  peace  with 
France  and  was  recognized  as  Emir  of  Mascara,  in  1834.  In  1835  the 
French  attacked  him  and  burned  Mascara.  In  1836  a  war  between 
them  was  maintained  with  varying  fortunes,  and  in  1837  he  yielded  to 
the  French  in  the  treaty  of  Tafna. 

We  must  notice,  also,  an  attempt  of  Louis  Napoleon  Bonaparte, 
a  nephew  of  the  Emperor  Napoleon,  to  excite  an  insurrection  at 
Strasbourg,  in  October,  1836,  for  the  purpose  of  overthrowing  the 
French  Government. 

THE  CARLIST  WAR. 

Ferdinand  VII  of  Spain,  having  been  restored  to  power  by  French 
intervention  in  1823,  was  able  to  finish  his  reign  in  comparative  peace. 
In  1829  he  married  his  fourth  wife,  Maria  Cristina  of  Naples,  a  sister  of 
the  Duchess  of  Berry.  She  was  a  woman  of  detestable  morals  but 
great  ability.  His  former  marriages  had  produced  no  children,  but  he 
still  hoped  for  issue,  and  made  a  proclamation  declaring  the  Salic  law 
abolished  in  Spain,  so  that  a  daughter,  should  he  have  one,  could  succeed 
to  the  throne.  Against  this  his  brothers,  Don  Carlos  and  Don  Francisco, 
made  formal  protest,  as  did  also  the  Bourbon  monarchs  of  Naples  and 
France,  in  18^0  the  Oueen  crave  birth  to  a  daughter,  Isabella,  who  was 
forthwith  recognized  as  heir  to  the  throne.  During  a  severe  illness  the 
King  was  induced  to  withdraw  his  proclamation  and  re-establish  the  Salic 
law,  but  on  recovery  of  his  health  he  was  persuaded  by  his  wife  to 
renew  the  proclamation  of  a  Pragmatic  Sanction.  He  died  in  1833,  and 
litde  Isabella  was  proclaimed  Queen,  with  her  mother  as  Regent.  Don 
Carlos  at  once  claimed  the  crown,  as  the  lawful  heir  under  the  Salic  law, 
and  rallied  to  his  support  a  large  part  of  the  people  of  Spain,  especially 
those  of  the  Basque  provinces.  In  order  to  defend  herself  the  Queen 
Regent  made  appeal  to  the  people  with  a  liberal  constitution  and  an 
elected  Parliament.  Thus  beo-an  the  first  of  those  Carlist  wars  which 
for  many  years  ravaged  and  unsettled  Spain.  At  first  the  Carlists 
were  largely  victorious  through  the  superiority  of  their  generals  ;  later 
the  Cristinos  gained  the  upper  hand  through  the  genius  of  the  ambi- 
tious genera],  Espartero 


CHAPTER  XV. 


Spanish  Attack  upon  Mexico— Usurpation  of  Bustamente— Defence  of  the 
Federal   Constitution— Proceedings  of  Santa  Anna— Texas   Declared 
Independent— New  Grenada.  Venezuela  and   Ecuador— Personal 
Incidents  —  First  Passenger  Railway  —  Exploring  the  Niger- 
Copyright  Reform— Obituary — Slave  Insurrection— Events 
Abroad — Girard  College  Founded— Chastising  Savage 
Sumatrians— The  Cholera   Epidemic— The   Death 
Roll  —  Treaty    with    Russia  —  Rioting    in    the 
United  States  — Shooting  Stars  —  Necrol- 
ogy —  Great    Fire    in    New    York  — 
Colt's  Revolver. 


AT  the  session  of  the  new  Mexican  Congress  in  January,  1829,  the 
House  of  Representatives  proclaimed  Vincent  Guerrero  to  be 
duly  elected  President,  on  the  constitutional  ground  that  he  had 
the  majority  of  the  legal  votes.  General  Bustamente,  who  had 
been  supported  by  the  partisans  of  Pedraza,  was  declared  to  be  duly 
elected  Vice-President ;  and  in  orcranizinor-  the  new  administration,  Zavala, 
then  Governor  of  the  State  of  Mexico,  was  appointed  Secretary  of  State, 
and  General  Santa  Anna  Secretary  of  War. 

USURPATION  OF  BUSTAMENTE. 

Soon  after  the  declaration  of  Congress  in  favor  of  the  election  of 
Guerrero,  that  body  passed  a  resolution  investing  him  wivh  dictatorial 
powers,  in  anticipation  of  an  invasion  by  Spain,  to  recover  possession  of 
Mexico.  The  Spanish  army  of  4500  men,  sent  for  that  purpose,  were 
defeated,  and  compelled  to  retire.  The  continuance  of  his  extraordinary 
power  was  now  no  longer  necessary  ;  yet  Guerrero  continued  to  exercise 
it,  and  in  a  manner  and  for  purposes  not  contemplated.  This  brought  upon 
him  the  censure  of  Bustamente  and  others,  who  saw  in  his  measures  a 
desire  to  perpetuate  his  dictatorship.  Yet,  on  the  iith  of  December, 
Guerrero    resigned    his  dictatorship   into    the    hands    of   Congress,   and 

189 


I  go  STURY    OK    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

retired  to  his  estate.  Bustamente  immediately  assumed  or  usurped  the 
presidency,  pretending  that  he  was  actuated  solely  by  a  desire  to  restore 
the  constitution,  which  had  been  violated  in  the  elevation  of  Guerrero  to 
the  presidency.  The  latter  now  fled  to  the  mountains,  but  circumstances, 
in  the  spring  of  1830,  seeming  to  favor  an  attempt  to  regain  his  lost 
authority,  he  embarked  in  the  enterprise,  and  the  whole  country  was 
ao-ain  in  arms.  He  was,  however,  unsuccessful,  and  falling  into  the 
hands  of  his  opponents,  he  was  condemned  as  a  traitor,  and  executed  in 
February,  1831. 

DEFENCE  OF  THE  FEDERAL  CONSTITUTION. 

The  measures  of  Bustamente  directly  tended  towards  the  establish- 
ment of  a  stronir  central  crovernment,  and  those  of  Guerrero  had  been  in 
favor  of  a  perpetual  dictatorship.  On  the  ground  of  Bustamente's  pro- 
cedure in  his  government,  Santa  Anna,  in  1832,  placed  himself  at  the 
head  of  the  garrison  of  Vera  Cruz,  and,  as  a  pretext  for  revolt,  demanded 
a  re-organization  of  the  Ministry.  His  declarations  were  in  favor  of  the 
constitution  and  the  laws,  and  consequently  rallied  the  friends  of  the 
federal  system  to  his  support.  War  soon  began  to  rage,  and  it  was  not 
until  nearly  a  year  that  an  accommodation  was  made,  when  it  was  agreed 
that  Pedraza  should  be  restored  to  the  Government.  He  was  accord- 
ingly restored,  and  by  means  of  his  favorable  notice  of  Santa  Anna,  and 
now  his  friend,  but  formerly  his  enemy,  he  exerted  such  an  influence  that 
the  latter  was  elected  his  successor  in  1833.  Gomez  Farias  was  chosen 
Vice-President.  The  federal  system  was  now  apparently  re-established 
under  the  new  administration. 

PROCEEDINGS  OF  SANTA  ANNA. 

From  the  first  moment  of  Santa  Anna's  accession  to  the  presidency, 
he  was  inflamed  with  a  desire  for  dictatorial  power.  He  seized  an  oppor- 
tunity to  desert  the  federal  republican  party  and  joined  the  centralist 
faction.  By  military  order  he  dissolved  the  Constitutional  Congress  in 
May,  1834,  and  in  January,  1835,  he  assembled  a  revolutionary  and 
aristocratic  Congress,  which  deposed  the  Vice-President  Farias  and 
elected  General  Barragan,  a  leading  centralist,  in  his  place.  About  the 
same  time,  through  the  influence  of  Santa  Anna,  the  Constitution  of  1824 
was  abolished  l)y  Congress,  as  were  also  all  the  State  Constitutions  and 


I825-AMERICAN  FASHIONS 


ALEXANDER  von  HUMBOLDT 


JUSTUS   LIEBIG 


I82S— CiRKAT  SCIENTISTS  O?'  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY 


STORY    OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS.  1 93 

State  authorities,  and  a  central  republic  was  established  in  its  place.  So 
violent  a  measure  proved  unacceptable  to  several  of  the  States.  Zaca- 
tecas  submitted,  and  declared  for  centralism.  "  The  torch  of  liberty  was 
now  extinguished  in  the  republic,  and  military  despotism  fully  established." 
No !  it  was  not  quite  extinguished.  One  Mexican  Territory,  Texas, 
with  her  50,000  bold  inhabitants,  chiefly  emigrants  from  the  United 
States,  was  ready  to  resist  the  dictates  of  a  tyrant  and  usurper.  Santa 
Anna  felt  at  once  the  necessity',  if  his  rule  was  to  be  maintained,  of 
reducing  Texas  and  of  defeating  the  Americans,  or  driving  them  out  of 
the  country.  He  made  the  attempt  to  do  so  with  an  army  of  Sooo  men, 
and  at  first  seemed  to  be  successful. 

On  the  23d  of  February,  1836,  he  appeared  before  the  town  of  San 
Antonio,  at  the  head  of  a  body  of  1000  men,  the  advanced  guard  of  the 
Mexican  army.  The  town  was  immediately  taken,  but  the  fort  held  out, 
although  garrisoned  by  150  men.  A  constant  bombardment  was  kept  up 
by  the  besiegers,  yet  on  the  ist  of  March  a  detachment  of  32  men  from 
Gonzales  succeeded  in  forcing  their  way  through  the  Mexican  lines  and 
throwing  themselves  into  the  fort.  The  Mexicans  were  soon  reinforced 
to  the  number  of  4500  men,  and  at  midnight  of  the  6th  of  March  made 
a  desperate  assault  upon  the  place.  The  garrison  fought  desperately 
until  daylight,  when  only  seven  of  them  were  found  alive.  These 
were  all  put  to  the  sword.  The  Mexicans,  it  is  said,  lost  a  thousand 
men    in    this    affair. 

TEXAS  DECLARED  INDEPENDENT. 

The  Texans,  however,  were  not  dispirited  by  this  disaster.  On  the 
2d  of  March  a  general  convention,  held  at  the  town  of  Washington,  de- 
clared Texas  a  sovereign  and  independent  State.  The  Mexican  army, 
immediately  after  the  capture  of  San  Antonio,  advanced  upon  Goliad, 
which  was  garrisoned  by  a  body  of  350  men  under  Colonel  Fannino-. 
That  ofificer,  in  obedience  to  orders  from  his  commander,  blew  up  the 
fort  and  retreated  ;  but  after  marching  a  few  miles  he  was  surrounded  in 
a  prairie  by  a  body  of  2000  Mexicans.  Fanning's  party  defended  them- 
selves with  great  courage,  and  the  Mexican  commander  proposed  a  capit- 
ulation. Fanning  agreed  to  the  proposal,  and  surrendered  on  a  stipula- 
tion that  his  men  should  be  shipped  to  New  Orleans  within  eight  days. 
The  Mexicans  marched  their  prisoners  off  to  Goliad,  and  on  the  26th  of 


194  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

March  shot  them  all  in  cold  blood,  with  the  exception  of  four,  who 
made  their  escape. 

General  alarm  and  dismay  now  pervaded  the  country,  and  a  great 
many  inhabitants  sought  shelter  in  American  territory.  The  Indians 
were  rising  in  the  North,  and  the  invading  army  continued  to  massacre 
all  that  opposed  them.  It  was  found  necessary  to  order  a  strong  force 
of  United  States  troops  to  the  Texan  frontier  to  keep  the  savages  in 
check.  The  Texan  army,  which  was  now  commanded  by  General  Hous- 
ton, retreated  before  Santa  Anna,  until  they  reached  the  river  San 
Jacinto,  where  they  made  a  stand.  The  Mexicans  came  up,  and  on  the 
2 1  St  of  April  a  most  sanguinary  and  decisive  battle  was  fought  at  this 
place.  The  Mexicans  were  double  in  strength  to  their  opponents,  yet  the 
attack  of  the  Texans  was  made  with  such  courage  and  fury  that  in  fifteen 
minutes  the  Mexicans  were  completely  routed  ;  600  of  them  were  killed 
on  the  spot,  and  as  many  more  taken  prisoners.  Of  the  Texans,  26  were 
killed  and  wounded.  Santa  Anna  fled  from  the  field,  and  was  pursued 
fifteen  miles  by  the  Texan  mounted  riflemen,  when  his  horse  foundered 
and  he  took  shelter  in  the  woods.  Here,  after  a  long  search,  he  was 
found  hidden  in  the  top  of  a  tree,  and  made  prisoner. 

Santa  Anna  was  compelled  to  sign  a  treaty  by  which  the  Mexican 
troops  were  withdrawn  from  Texas,  and  agreed  not  to  serve  against  that 
country  during  the  war  of  independence.  Santa  Anna,  after  some  deten- 
tion occasioned  by  the  exasperated  feelings  of  the  people  against  him, 
was  set  at  liberty  and  proceeded  to  Washington.  President  Jackson  fur- 
nished him  with  a  passage  to  Vera  Cruz  in  a  ship  of  war  of  the 
United  States.  The  independence  of  Texas  seems  to  have  been  perma- 
nently established  by  the  victory  of  San  Jacinto.  The  United  States 
formally  recognized  it  on  the  3d  of  March,  1837,  and  Great  Britain  on 
the  1 6th  of  November,  1840. 

NEW  GRENADA,  VENEZUELA  AND  ECUADOR. 

On  the  4th  of  May,  1830,  Senor  Joachim  Mosquera  was  elected 
President,  and  General  Domingo  Caicedo,  Vice-President ;  but  on  the 
4th  of  September  Mosquera  resigned,  and  Urdanata  was  appointed  tem- 
porary President  until  the  arrival  of  Bolivar,  whose  return  to  power  was 
decreed  by  a  meeting  of  soldiers  and  citizens  ;  but  Bolivar  died  at  Car- 
thagena,    December    17th,    the    same    year.     Venezuela    again  joined 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  1 95 

Colombia  for  a  short  time;  but  in  November,  i83i,a  new  separation 
took  place,  and  since  that  time  the  Republic  of  Colombia  was  divided 
into  three  republics,  viz.  :  New  Grenada,  Venezuela,  and  Ecuador.  Sub- 
sequently New  Grenada  assumed  the  name  of  the  United  States  of  Co- 
lombia, or  simply  Colombia,  which  latter  it  now  retains. 

PERSONAL  INCIDENTS. 

Pope  Leo  XII  died  in  February,  1S29,  and  in  March  was  succeeded 
by  Pius  VIII.  This  year  also  witnessed  the  death  of  Frederich  von 
Schlegel,  the  great  German  author,  critic  and  philosopher ;  of  Thomas 
Young,  the  English  scientist  and  Egyptologist ;  of  Sir  Humphrey 
Davy,  the  scientist  and  inventor  of  the  famous  miners'  safety  lamp 
which  bears  his  name  ;  and  of  Lamarck,  the  French  scientist. 

We  have  elsewhere  spoken  of  the  organization  of  the  strange  com- 
munity of  Mormons.  It  was  in  1830  that  the  Mormon  Church  was  for- 
mally founded,  by  Joseph  Smith,  at  Manchester,  N.  Y. 

The  year  1830  was  marked  with  the  death  of  the  new  Pope,  Pius 
VIII,  in  November.  His  successor,  Gregory  XVI,  was  not  elected  until 
February  of  the  following  year. 

Dom  Pedro  I  of  Brazil  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  son,  Dom  Pedro  II, 
in  1 83 1. 

FIRST  PASSENGER  RAILWAY. 

The  earliest  railroads  in  both  England  and  America  were   used  for 

the  transportation  of  freight,  especially  of  stone  and  coal.     Their  utility 

for  such  purposes  having  been  established,  the   next  step  was  to  put 

them  to  use  for  the  conveyance  of  passengers.     The  first  to  be  thus 

used   was  the  road  between    Manchester   and  Liverpool,    in    England. 

This  was  formally  opened  for  travel  in   1S30,  and  at  that  time  the  era 

of  passenger  transportation    by  steam    railroads  may  be  said  to  have 

begun.      It  was    not  long    before  passenger  railroads  were  opened  in 

the  United  States.     Indeed,  it  was    accomplished    in    that    same  year, 

T830,  and  in  that  year,    too,  the    first  locomotive  was  manufactured  in 

this  country. 

EXPLORING  THE  NIGER. 

For  some  time  the  brothers  Lander,  Englishmen,  had  been  conduct- 
ing explorations  in  the  west-central  parts  of  Africa.  In  the  year  1830 
they  succeeded  in  positively  establishing  the  identity  of  the  Quorra  and 


igS  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

Niger  rivers.  Their  work  in  that  region  aided  materially  in  the  open- 
ing up  of  it  to  commerce,  and  laid  the  foundations  of  what  is  now  an  im- 
portant British  Empire  in  the  Niger  basin. 

Meantime  Arctic  exploration  proceeded  apace,  and  in  1831  Captain 
John  Ross,  with  his  expedition  under  the  patronage  of  Felix  Booth,  as- 
certained definitely  the  precise  location  of  the  magnetic  pole,  appropri- 
ately naming  the  land  Boothia  Felix. 

At  about  the  same  time  the  source  of  the  Mississippi  River  was 
discovered  in  Lake  Itasca,  2800  miles  from  the  river's  mouth  at  the 
Gulf  of  Me.xico. 

COPYRIGHT  REFORM. 

The  year  1831  was  made  memorable  to  authors  and  publishers  by 
the  adoption  of  a  new  law  in  the  United  States  granting  copyright  for  a 
term  of  twenty-eight  years,  with  a  renewal  for  fourteen  years. 

A  few  years  later,  in  1837,  agitation  for  international  copyright  was 
begun  in  the  United  States,  chiefly  at  Boston,  where  a  number  of  note- 
worthy public  meetings  were  held  in  the  interest  of  the  proposed  reform. 
The  movement  spread  to  Great  Britain,  and  to  the  Continent  ;  and 
Prussia  was,  in  1837,  the  first  of  all  nations  to  enact  an  international 
copyright  law. 

OBITUARY. 

James  Monroe,  who  had  been  President  of  the  United  States,  died 
in  1 83 1,  and,  by  a  strange  coincidence  already  noted  in  the  cases  of 
Jefferson  and  Adams,  on  July  4th. 

The  same  year  witnessed  the  death  of  Niebuhr,  the  great  German 
scholar  and  historian  ;  and  of  Hegel,  one  of  the  foremost  philosophers 
of  his  age. 

SLAVE   INSURRECTION. 

In  the  month  of  August,  1 831,  a  slave  insurrection  of  considerable 
local  importance  broke  out  in  Southampton  County,  Va.  It  was  origi- 
nated by  a  crazy  sort  of  vagrant  nicknamed  "  Nat,"  who  had  passed 
among  the  negroes  for  some  time  as  a  Baptist  preacher.  His  repu- 
tation for  piety,  or  fanaticism,  had  so  imposed  upon  the  planters  that  the 
wonder  only  was  his  influence  had  not  been  greater,  and  the  struggle 
consequently  more  fierce  and  bloody.  The  number  of  whites  massacred 
on  rising  was  fifty-eight — consisting  principally  of  decrepit  men,  women 
and  children.     The  blacks  then  fled  to  the  swamps,  apparently  terrified 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 


197 


at  their  own  atrocities  ;  and  were   presently   subdued  with  but  little  diffi- 
culty, yielding  up  their  leaders  to  the  gallows. 

EVENTS  ABROAD. 

Abroad,  the  American  minister  at  the  French  court,  William  C. 
Rives,  this  year  effected  a  treaty  with  that  nation,  by  the  terms  of  which 
25,000,000  of  francs  were  agreed  to  be  paid  to  the  American  Govern- 
ment, in  appropriate  instalments,  for  spoliations  upon  commerce  durino- 
the  turbulent  sway  of  the  Emperor  Napoleon. 

With  the  Neapolitan  Government  we  had  negotiated  in  vain  previ- 
ous to  this  year,  for  an  amicable  adjustment  of  claims  against  it  for  the 
sequestration  and  plunder  of  American  property  during  the  ephemeral 
reign  of  Joachim  Murat.  The  sudden  appearance  in  the  Bay  of  Naples 
of  a  respectable  number  of  armed  United  States'  vessels,  however, 
together  with  a  peremptory  demand  from  General  Jackson's  minister, 
Mr.  Nelson,  of  Maryland,  seemed  to  bring  His  Majesty  of  the  Two 
Sicilies  to  reason.  An  order  was  directly  given  upon  his  treasurer  for 
the  payment  of  2,115,000  ducats,  or  ^1,720,000,  to  be  paid  in  nine 
equal  instalments,   with  interest  at  the  rate  of  4  per  centum  until  paid. 

GIRARD   COLLEGE   FOUNDED. 

Stephen  Girard,  the  great  Philadelphia  banker,  died  in  December  of 
this  year.  At  the  time  of  his  death  he  was  supposed  to  be  the  richest 
man  in  the  nation — possessing  about  ten  millions  of*  dollars  in  avail- 
able funds.  In  the  war  of  1812-14  he  loaned  the  United  States  Gov- 
ernment ^5,000,000  ;  and  at  tlie  time  of  his  death,  with  a  praiseworthy 
liberality  but  little  emulated  by  his  trustees  since,  devised  the  great 
mass  of  his  property  to  various  charitable  institutions  and  purposes  in 
and  near  the  city  of  Philadelphia.  His  best-known  benefaction  was  the 
foundation  of  Girard  College,  a  great  educational  institution  for  poor 
boys. 

CHASTISING   SAVAGE   SUMATRIANS, 

On  February  ist,  1832,  Commodore  Downes,  in  the  United  States 
frigate  "Potomac,"  arrived  on  the  coast  of  Sumatra,  being  principally 
on  an  expedition  to  chastise  a  horde  of  Malay  savages  for  certain  out- 
rages upon  Americans  and  their  commerce.  Among  other  charo-es 
against  them  was  one  on   account   of  the   ship  "  Friendship,"  of  Salem. 


igS  STORY   OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

It  appears  this  vessel  had  formerly  traded  with  them  for  spices,  etc  , 
when,  on  a  convenient  occasion  occurring,  the  barbarians  determined 
upon  appropriating  to  themselves  the  ship  and  its  contents,  after  an  in- 
discriminate massacre  of  the  crew,  by  which  they  vainly  hoped  to  hide 
their  crime.  When  the  chiefs  were  applied  to  for  restitution  in  this 
case,  and  the  delivery  of  the  murderers,  they  with  characteristic  cupidity 
denied  all  knowledge  of  the  matter  and  refused  to  give  any  kind  of  sat- 
isfaction. Commodore  Downes  took  prompt  and  efficient  steps  directly. 
In  the  night  of  the  6th  his  frigate  was  quietly  worked  in  toward  shore, 
and  at  dawn  of  day,  in  the  mist,  260  men  were  landed  in  detachments, 
without  disturbing  the  natives.  A  simultaneous  attack  was  made  upon 
their  five  forts,  which  were  in  about  three  hours  reduced,  with  much 
slaughter  on  the  part  of  the  Malays  ;  while  a  heavy  cannonade  from 
the  ship  at  the  same  time  soon  laid  their  town  of  Quallah  Battoo  in 
ashes.  The  loss  of  the  Americans  was  but  two  killed,  and  eight  or  ten 
wounded.  A  few  mountaineers  visited  the  frigate  shortly  after,  when 
the  commodore  left  word  that  he  should  call  there  again — if  necessary. 

THE  CHOLERA   EPIDEMIC. 

The  cholera  pestilence  in  1832  ravaged  the  entire  Union.  It  ap- 
pears to  have  crossed  the  Atlantic  with  a  company  of  emigrants  in 
ships  bound  to  Quebec  and  Montreal,  from  thence  spreading  quickly  in 
every  direction,  though  mainly  and  with  most  severity  pursuing  the  great 
courses  of  travel.  It  broke  out  in  several  cities  of  the  United  States  at 
about  the  same  time,  in  the  month  of  July,  and  raged  until  autumn  set 
in.  In  the  city  of  New  York  4000  persons  are  computed  to  have  fallen 
its  victims.  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  Charleston,  and  New  Orleans  suf- 
fered in  nearly  the  same  ratio,  in  defiance  of  all  the  usual  precautionary 
measures.  Boston  and  the  New  England  States  were  scourged  less 
severely.  On  the  American  Continent  nothing  but  the  frosts  of  winter 
appeared  effectually  to  arrest  its  progress  ;  yet,  amid  the  everlasting 
snows  of  Russia,  it  had  manifested  itself  with  true  Asiatic  virulence. 
Climate  seemed  to  be  no  safeguard,  nor  ocean-wide  barriers  any  de- 
fence. In  mild  southern  France  the  number  of  its  victims  w^as  frightfully 
enormous  ;  in  the  cities  of  Mexico  one-fourth  of  the  population  was  de- 
stroyed ;  and  on  the  island  of  Cuba  $100,000,000  worth  of  slaves  are 
said  to  have  perished  in   less   than   ninety  days.     It  is  stated  that  on  this 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  1 99 

island  the  coffee-planters  mostly  escaped  the  affliction,  while  the  neigh- 
boring sugar  plantations  were  completely  depopulated. 

THE  DEATH   ROLL. 

Death,  in  various  forms,  visited  the  great  names  of  the  earth,  in  the 
course  of  1832.  In  New  York,  of  the  prevailing  epidemic,  died  William 
.  H.  Maynard,  eminent  as  a  State  Senator,  who  left  by  his  will  the  sum  of 
ji520,ooo  to  establish  a  law  professorship  in  Hamilton  College.  In  Boston, 
the  celebrated  Doctor  Spurzheim,  founder,  in  connection  with  Doctor 
Gall,  of  the  science  of  phrenology.  In  Ohio,  the  Rt.  Rev.  Roman 
Catholic  Bishop  Fenwick.  In  Georgia,  Thomas  Cobb,  a  revolutionary 
character,  aged  120.  In  Maryland,  Charles  Carroll,  of  Carrollton,  the 
last  surviving  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  In  New 
Hampshire,  Captain  Joseph  Pratt,  a  naval  commander  of  much  esteem 
in  the  annals  of  revolutionary  coasting.  In  Rhode  Island,  Captain 
Stephen  Olney,  of  whom  it  is  said,  he  was  the  first  to  scale  the  enemy's 
fortification,  and  then  shout  the  command,  "  Captain  Olney's  company 
will  form  here  !  "  In  New  Jersey,  Philip  Freneau,  an  ai-rly  and  prolific 
writer  of  American  fugitive  poetry.  In  Connecticut,  Judge  Hillhouse,  a 
distinguished  statesman  and  lawyer.  At  Abbottsfo.'-d,  Great  Britain,  Sir 
Walter  Scott,  "  the  wizard  of  the  north."  In  London,  Baron  Tenterden, 
Chief-justice  of  the  King's  Bench.  In  France,  General  Lamarque,  one  of 
Napoleon's  officers.  Also,  Champollion,  the  renowned  French  tourist — 
and  Casimir  Perier,  a  statesman  of  celebrity  in  Paris.  In  Rome,  Madame 
Letitia,  mother  of  Bonaparte.  At  the  palace  of  Schoenbrunn,  near 
Vienna,  Napoleon  Francis  Charles  Joseph,  Duke  of  Reichstadt,  only  son 
of  Napoleon  Bonaparte.  To  this  roll  must  be  added  the  names  of 
Cuvier,  the  great  French  naturalist ;  Goethe,  the  greatest  of  German 
poets  ;  and  Bentham,  the  social  philosopher. 

The  necrology  of  1833  included  Commodore  Bainbridge,  at  Phila- 
delphia. General  Coffee,  at  Florence,  Alabama.  Governor  Scott,  of 
Mississippi.  Ex-Governors  Wolcott,  of  Connecticut ;  Skinner,  of  Ver- 
mont ;  and  Edwards,  of  Illinois.  John  Randolph,  of  Roanoke,  in  Phila- 
delphia. Judge  Hall,  of  North  Carolina,  a  distinguished  jurist.  Colonel 
Amos  Binney,  of  Massachusetts.  Colonel  John  Neilson,  of  New  Jersey, 
and  Colonel  Nicholas  Fish,  of  New  York,  revolutionary  heroes.  Near 
the  mouth  of  Red  River,  by  explosion    on  the  steamboat   "Lioness," 


200  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

Senator  Johnson,  of  Louisiana,  and  fourteen  others ;  strange  to  relate 
this  said  occurrence  did  not  take  place  on  account  of  a  race,  but  was 
owing  to  a  quantity  of  gunpowder  being  stowed  carelessly.  In  England, 
Lieutenant-Colonel  Tarleton,  the  indefatigable  Tory  opponent  of  Sumpter 
and  Marion,  at  the  South.  Also  Hannah  More,  the  authoress  ;  Wilber- 
force,  the  humanitist ;  Keane,  the  actor ;  and  Rammohun  Roy,  the 
philosopher.  In  Paris,  Marshal  Jourdan,  and  Savary,  Duke  of  Rovigo,  • 
noted  once  as  Bonapartists.     In  Spain,  Ferdinand  VII. 

TREATY  WITH  RUSSIA. 

In  1833  were  promulgated  the  particulars  of  a  treaty  between  the 
United  States  and  Russia,  which  was  negotiated  at  St.  Petersburg 
between  Count  Nesselrode,  on  the  part  of  the  Emperor,  and  James 
Buchanan,  in  behalf  of  the  States.  By  its  provisions  the  present  liberal 
system  of  commerce  carried  on  between  the  two  nations  was  put  upon  a 
permanent  basis. 

RIOTING  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  year  1834  was  marked  in  the  United  States  w-ith  an  unusual 
tendency  to  rioting.  Small  matters  seem  in  various  sections  to  have  been 
magnified  into  importance,  and  the  populace  incited  to  acts  which 
resulted  in  the  destruction  of  life  and  property.  At  New  Orleans  a 
canal  riot  broke  out  between  adverse  parties  of  Irish  laborers  ;  a  body  of 
gens  d'armes  being  sent  to  quell  the  disturbance,  were  fired  upon  by  the 
mob,  which  was  in  turn  charged  on  by  the  police,  when  much  bloodshed 
and  distress  ensued.  In  New  York  the  abolition  riots  prevailed  for 
several  days  ;  a  number  of  churches  and  private  dwellings  were  destroyed, 
with  a  large  amount  of  property.  In  Charlestown,  Massachusetts,  the 
Ursuline  Convent  was    barbarously  demolished. 

That  a  better  spirit  was  about  that  time  pervading  the  higher  class 
of  citizens,  we  have  much  satisfaction  in  knowing  ;  the  evidence  of  this 
is  particularly  apparent  in  an  energetic  movement  to  suppress  the  pre- 
valent pernicious  practice  of  lottery-gambling.  In  New  York  and  Penn- 
sylvania, more  especially,  popular  feeling  had  been  manifested  in  favor 
of  the  nuisance,  to  a  very  discreditable  degree  ;  but  the  good  sense  of 
the  law-makers  triumphed,  and,  despite  the  infatuation  of  the  brawlers, 
effectual  penal  prohibitory  statutes  were  enacted. 


STORY   OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS.  2-,l 


SHOOTING   STARS. 


The  savans  of  this  hemisphere  were  subject  to  an  unusual  excite- 
ment about  the  month  of  November,  1834.  In  the  previous  autumn  an 
astronomical  phenomenon  of  an  astonishing  and  singularly  beautiful 
character  had  been  witnessed  ;  the  '  shower  of  stars,"  as  it  was  termed, 
had  been  seen  along  the  whole  line  of  the  American  Continent,  and 
afforded  ample  food  for  much  curious  conjecture  with  the  learned,  both 
of  this  country  and  Europe.  A  recurrence  of  the  phenomenon  was  now 
looked  tor,  and  there  were  nightly  watchers  on  many  house-tops,  anxious 
either  for  the  sake  of  philosophy  in  particular  or  an  indefinite  desire  for 
"enlightenment"  in  general.  The  professors  at  Yale  College  were 
applied  to,  and  after  devoting  a  reasonable  share  of  attention  to  the 
probabilities  of  the  case,  consented  to  deputize  a  proper  individual  to 
make  observations  ;  but  their  assiduity  was  of  no  avail,  as  it  did  not 
result  in  any  peculiarly  valuable  scientific  elucidations 

NECROLOGY. 

In  the  obituary  fcr  1834  appears  a  name  which  still  shines  brilliant 
in  American  annals — that  of  General  the  Marquis  de  Lafayette,  deceased 
at  Paris,  May  20th,  in  the  76th  year  of  his  age.  In  England,  Prince 
Hoare,  Charles  Lamb  and  S.  T.  Coleridge,  each  of  celebrity  for  literary 
attainments.  In  Germany,  Schliermacher,  the  great  preacher,  theologian 
and  philosopher. 

GREAT  FIRE  IN  NEW  YORK. 

Near  the  end  of  the  year  1835  an  unparalleled  conflagration  visited 
the  city  of  New  York,  the  effects  of  which  were  so  extensive  as  to  be  felt 
more  or  less  in  every  direction  throughout  the  land.  It  is  computed  that 
nearly  $20,000,000  worth  of  property  was  destroyed,  without  estimating 
the  injury  and  loss  from  individual  failures  and  suspension  of  business. 
The  fire  broke  out  early  on  the  nicrht  of  the  i6th  of  December,  the  ther- 
mometer  at  the  time  standing  at  zero ;  of  course  the  intensity  of  cold 
rendered  engines  and  hydrants  of  but  little  use,  though  the  devotion  of 
firemen  to  their  duties  still  shone  conspicuous  and  bright  as  ever.  At 
two  o'clock  on  the  morning  of  the  17th,  Lieutenant  Reynolds,  with  a 
detachment  of  marines  from  the  Navy  Yard  at  Brooklyn,  and  shortly 
after  Captain   Mix,  with  a  body  of  sailors  under  arms,  arrived  on   the 


202  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

ground  ;  they  rendered  very  essential  service  in  guarding  property  and 
taking  cliarge  of  a  quantity  of  gunpowder  brought  from  the  magazine  at 
Red  Hook  for  the  purpose  of  stopping  tlie  ravages  of  tlie  flames  by 
explosion.  After  the  devouring  element  had  swept  away  between  thirty 
and  forty  acres  of  substantial  buildings,  mostly  stores  filled  with  rich 
merchandise,  a  stop  was  put  to  the  further  spread  of  desolation  by 
making  use  of  the  powder  and  exploding  certain  buildings.  As  an 
instance  of  one  of  the  uses  of  law,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  the  owners 
of  said  exploded  buildings  subsequently  brought  suit  against  the  city  for 
allowing  their  property  to  be  thus  destroyed,  and  damages  in  full  were 
recovered. 

COLT'S  REVOLVER. 

Colonel  Samuel  Colt,  of  Hartford,  Conn.,  in  1835,  obtained  a  patent 
for  his  invention  of  a  revolving  pistol,  and  thus  marked  a  new  era  in  the 
history  of  firearms  and  of  the  arts  of  war. 

In  that  same  year  the  considerable  migration  of  Dutch  settlers  from 
Cape  Colony,  known  as  the  Great  Trek,  began,  and  led  to  the  foundation 
of  the  Orange  River  Free  State  and  the  Transvaal. 

A  literary  incident  of  the  first  magnitude  in  1836  was  the  appear- 
ance of  Charles  Dickens'  "  Pickwick  Papers." 

Ex-President  Madison  and  A.  L.  de  Jussieu,  the  French  botanist, 
died  in  1836. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 


Martin  Van  Buren  becomes  President  of  the   United  States — The  Greet 
Panic — Continuance    of    the    War    in    Florida — Internal     Improve- 
ments— Difficulties  in   the  State  of  Maine — Incidents  of  the 
Administration — Changes  of  Opinion  Among  the  People 
— An  Exciting  Campaign. 


A 


NDREW  JACKSON  was  succeeded,  in  1837,  by  Martin  Van 
Buren,  who  had  held  the  office  of  Vice-President  the  preceding 
four  years,  and  who,  in  his  administration,  continued  the  same 
general  policy  as  that  of  his  predecessor. 


THE  GREAT  PANIC. 

In  the  spring  of  this  year  (1837)  commenced  the  greatest  commer- 
cial revulsion  ever  known  in  this  country.  A  spirit  of  extravagant 
speculation  had,  for  some  years,  prevailed ;  a  multitude  of  State  banks 
had  been  chartered,  by  means  of  which  there  was  a  great  expansion  of 
paper  currency  ;  numerous  and  very  expensive  public  works,  as  canals, 
railroads,  etc.,  were  undertaken  by  States  and  incorporated  companies ; 
immense  importations  of  foreign  goods  were  made  ;  and  real  estate, 
especially  in  cities  and  villages,  was  raised  far  above  its  intrinsic  value. 
At  length  the  crisis  came,  witn  tremendous  effect.  The  panic  extended 
throughout  the  entire  country,  and  all  confidence  and  all  credit  were 
at  an  end. 

On  the  loth  of  May,  all  the  banks  in  the  city  of  New  York  sus- 
pended specie  payment ;  and  the  suspension  soon  became  general 
throughout  the  country.  The  mercantile  classes  were  subjected  to  the 
greatest  embarrassments,  and  failures  were  numerous  in  all  the  com- 
mercial cities.  In  the  city  of  New  York  alone,  the  list  of  failures, 
including  only  the  more  considerable  ones,  exhibited  an  amount  of 
upwards  of  $60,000,000. 

The  national  government  became  involved  in  the  general  embar- 
rassment,  inasmuch   as   the  banks  in   which   the    public  deposits    were 


204  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

placed,  had,  like  the  rest,  suspended  specie  payment.  In  this  state  of 
affairs,  the  President  convoked  an  extra  session  of  Congress,  to  meet  on 
the  4th  of  September.  Congress  passed  an  act  postponing,  to  the  ist 
of  January,  1839,  the  payment  to  the  States  of  the  fourth  instalment  of 
the  surplus  revenue,  and  authorized  an  issue  ot  treasury  notes  to  the 
amount  of  $10,000,000,  to  be  receivable  in  payment  of  pubHc  dues.  A 
bill  for  placing  the  public  money  in  the  hands  of  receivers-general,  called 
the  Sub-Treasury  or  Independent  Treasury  Bill,  was  recommended  by 
the  President,  and  passed  the  Senate,  but  was  lost  in  the  House.  This 
bill,  after  repeated  failures,  was  finally  passed  and  enacted  into  a  law  in 
June,  1840.  In  August,  1838,  the  banks  throughout  the  country  gen- 
erally resumed  specie  payment. 

In  1837,  a  rebellion  against  the  British  government  broke  out  in 
Canada.  It  was  sustained  by  some  men  of  talents  and  inHuence,  and 
disturbed  the  peace  of  that  country  through  the  following  year  (1838). 
A  considerable  number  of  citizens  of  the  United  States,  belonging  to 
the  parts  of  Vermont  and  New  York  which  border  on  Canada,  unhap- 
pily took  part  with  the  insurgents.  Their  course  was  condemned  by  the 
general  government ;  and  the  President  issued  a  proclamation,  exhorting 
such  citizens  of  the  United  States,  as  had  violated  their  duties,  to  return 
peaceably  to  their  respective  homes,  and  warning  them  that  the  laws 
would  be  rigidly  enforced  against  such  as  should  render  themselves 
liable  to  punishment. 

CONTINUANCE  OF  THE  WAR  IN  FLORIDA. 

The  Indian  war  in  Florida  continued  to  be  prosecuted  during  the 
administration  of  President  Van  Buren.  -Large  sums  of  money  were 
expended  in  maintaining  it.  $3,500,000  had  been  appropriated  on  its 
account,  during  the  years  1836  and  1837,  under  General  Jackson;  and 
at  the  extra  session  in  October,  1837,  $1,600,000  were  appropriated; 
and  in  1838,  the  expenses  for  supporting  the  war  in  that  quarter  against 
the  Indians,  amounted  to  as  large  a  sum  as  in  either  of  the  two  preced- 
ing years.  "When  the  difficulty  arose  with  these  Indians,  President 
Jackson  supposed  that  it  would  soon  be  terminated.  And  no  one,  at 
that  time,  had  any  reason  to  suppose  that  it  would  continue  for  years, 
and  have  cost  the  government  $8,000,000  or  $10,000,000.  Other 
measures  than    those  of   force   would,    probably,    have  terminated   the 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  205 

difficulty  at  an  early  period.  It  would  certainly  have  saved  many 
valuable  lives  now  lost  to  the  country,  and  been  far  more  satisfactory  to 
the  friends  of  humanity  throughout  the  Union." 

INTERNAL  IMPROVEMENTS. 

During  Mr.  Van  Buren's  administration,  large  sums  were  appro- 
priated for  internal  improvements,  although  the  President  was  generally 
opposed  to  the  policy.  The  expenditures  were,  however,  for  purposes 
which  the  advocates  of  State  rights,  for  the  most  part,  believed  to  be 
legitimate,  such  as  repairs  on  the  Cumberland  road  and  its  continuance 
through  the  States  of  Indiana  and  Illinois  ;  for  light-houses,  life-boats, 
buoys,  and  monuments,  in  behalf  of  the  interests  of  navigation.  In 
reference  to  these  objects,  there  was  always  far  more  agreement  among 
the  different  parties  in  Congress,  than  in  reference  to  anything  that 
seemed  less  essential  to  the  nation's  benefit. 

DIFFICULTIE^S  IN  THE  STATE  OF  MAINE. 

The  North-eastern  boundary  had  long  been  a  source  of  difficulty 
between  the  United  States  and  England.  The  question  had  seemed  on 
the  eve  of  a  decision  by  arms  between  the  British  authorities  in  New 
Brunswick  and  the  State  of  Maine.  Armed  bands  had  been  sent  out  on 
both  sides  to  the  territory  in  dispute.  General  Scott  had  been  sent  to 
the  scene  of  contention  by  the  President,  and  the  so-called  Aroostook 
war,  through  the  General's  exertions,  was,  for  the  time,  quieted,  yet  not 
settled.  The  danger  attending  this  state  of  things  induced  Mr.  Van 
Buren,  on  the  26th  of  February,  1839,  to  communicate  to  Congress  a 
message  on  this  subject,  which  resulted  in  an  act  of  Congress,  givino- 
the  President  additional  power  for  the  defence  of  the  country,  in  certain 
cases,  against  invasion,  or  any  attempt  on  the  part  of  Great  Britain  to 
exercise  exclusive  jurisdiction  over  the  disputed  territory. 

He  was  authorized,  in  this  event,  to  accept  the  services  of  any 
number  of  volunteers,  not  exceeding  50,000.  The  sum  of  $10,000,000 
was  appropriated  for  the  President  to  employ  in  executing  the  provisions 
of  this  act.  At  the  same  time,  an  appropriation  was  made  for  the  send- 
ing of  a  special  minister  to  England,  should  it  be  expedient  in  the 
opinion  of  the  President. 


206  STORY    OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

INCIDENTS  OF  THE  ADMINISTRATION. 

In  Mr.  Van  Buren's  time  the  anti-slavery  agitation  increased 
steadily.  One  tragic  incident  of  it  was  the  martyrdom  of  Lovejoy,  an 
anti-slavery  editor,  in  Illinois,  at  the  hands  of  a  pro-slavery  mob.  The 
Territory  of  Iowa  was  formed.  Chicago  was  incorporated  as  a  city. 
The  famous  Indian  chief,  Osceola,  was  finally  captured.  And  on  the 
whole,  it  was  a  period  of  much  political  and  other  activity. 

The  rise  of  Mormonism  demands  brief  notice.  One  Joseph  Smith 
made  public  a  book,  known  as  the  Book  of  Mormon,  which  he  declared 
had  been  revealed  to  him  supernaturally.  Adopting  this  as  a  new  Bible, 
he  organized  a  religious  sect,  which  attempted,  in  1840,  to  make  a 
settlement  at  Nauvoo,  Illinois.  The  principles  and  practices  of  the 
Mormons  were  objectionable  to  their  neighbors,  and  in  1844  the  colony 
was  forcibly  broken  up  and  expelled,  and  Smith  himself  was  killed.  The 
Mormons,  under  the  leadership  of  Brigham  Young,  then  made  their  way 
far  into  the  western  wilderness  and  established  a  new  colony  on  the 
Great  Salt  Lake  Valley  in  Utah. 

CHANGED  OF  OPINION  AMONG  THE  PEOPLE. 

Although  the  President,  during  his  visit  to  his  native  State  in  the 
summer  of  1839,  ^^^  ^^^  ^^^^  time  since  his  inauguration,  was  every- 
where greeted  with  enthusiasm  by  his  political  friends,  and  with  great 
personal  respect  by  his  opponents,  yet  it  was  evident  that  the  political 
horizon  wore  a  different  aspect  from  what  it  formerly  had  done.  The 
derangement  of  the  currency  and  prostration  of  trade,  attributed 
by  many  to  the  mal-administration  of  government,  had  caused  great 
political  changes.  Of  the  representatives  in  the  Twenty-Sixth  Congress, 
there  were  one  hundred  and  nineteen  Democrats  and  one  hundred  and 
eighteen  Whigs,  leaving  out  of  view  five  representatives  from  New 
Jersey,  whose  seats  were  contested.  After  several  fierce  debates,  the 
Democratic  members  from  this  State  were  admitted. 

Mr.  Van  Buren,  in  1840,  being  a  candidate  for  re-election,  failed  to 
carry  the  suffrages  of  the  people.  The  great  political  changes,  from 
causes  already  intimated,  as  shown  in  the  State  elections,  gave,  at  the 
outset,  but  little  hope  of  his  success. 

AN  EXCITING  CAMPAIGN. 

The  last  year  of  Mr.  Van  Buren's  administration  was  marked  with 
the  most  exciting  political  campaign  the  country  had  yet  known.     The 


STORY   OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS.  207 

Democrats  renominated  him.  The  Whigs  put  forward  William  Henry 
Harrison  as  their  candidate,  and  a  third  party,  known  as  the  Liberty 
Party,  was  also  in  the  field.  Harrison  was  the  hero  of  the  battle  of 
Tippecanoe,  and  was  popularly  called  "Old  Tippecanoe,"  and  log 
cabins  and  jugs  of  hard  cider,  in  reference  to  his  humble  mode  of  life, 
were  used  as  the  emblems  of  the  campaign.  In  the  end,  Harrison  was 
elected.  Never  before  had  greater  activity  been  manifested  by  the 
leading  political  parties  of  the  nation.  The  country  had  been  convulsed 
with  the  strife  for  many  months.  The  whole  political  press  had  exerted 
its  utmost  influences  on  the  one  side  or  the  other,  and  that,  in  many 
instances,  in  the  most  unscrupulous  manner.  Considerations  of  great 
interest  and  importance  were  urged  by  the  respective  parties  ;  much 
truth  was  uttered  and  widely  disseminated,  but  more  falsehood  and 
detraction.  Popular  meetings — in  numbers,  character,  and  enthusiasm, 
never  before  assembled  on  the  American  soil  for  this  or  any  other 
purpose — were  held  towards  the  conclusion  of  the  political  contest  in 
every  State,  and  in  almost  every  county.  The  most  distinguished  men 
in  the  nation  addressed  thousands  and  tens  of  thousands,  by  night  and 
by  day.  Said  an  eminent  statesmen,  on  one  occasion,  "If,  on  the  occur- 
rence of  our  Presidential  elections  in  future,  our  contests  must  be  so 
severe,  so  early  begun,  and  so  long  continued,  human  nature  will  fail. 
The  energies  of  man  are  not  equal  to  the  conflict." 


CHAPTER  XVII. 


Accession    of   Queen   Victoria — Insurrection    in    Canadai — Suppression   of 
the   Insurgents — Indemnity  in  C&nada — Outbreak  in  Acadie — Persian 
Invasion    of   Afghanistan — The    Chartist    Agitation — Attempt    to 
Burn    Sheffield — Marriage    of    Queen    Victoria — The    Opium 
War  —  Hostilities    at     Macao  —  Destruction     of    Chinese 
Fleet — Attempt  to  Assassinate  Queen  Victoria — Louis 
Napoleon    at    Boulogne — Remains    of    Bonaparte 
Brought     Home  —  The     British     Princess- 
Royal— Turkish  Affairs— Fall  of 
Acre — Terms  of  Peace. 


KING  WILLIAM  IV,  of  England,  died  on  June  20,  1837,  and 
intelligence  of  the  fact  having  been  officially  communicated  to  his 
niece  and  successor,  the  Princess  Victoria,  and  her  mother,  the 
Duchess  of  Kent,  at  Kensington  Palace,  preparations  were 
immediately  made  for  holding  a  Privy  Council  at  eleven  o'clock.  A 
temporary  throne  was  erected  for  the  occasion,  and  on  the  Queen  being 
seated  the  Lord  Chancellor  administered  to  Her  Majesty  the  usual  oath, 
that  she  would  govern  the  kingdom  according  to  the  laws,  customs,  etc. 
The  Cabinet  Ministers  and  other  Privy  Councillors  then  present  took  the 
oath  of  allegiance  and  supremacy  ;  and  the  Ministers  having  first  resigned 
their  seals  of  office,  Her  Majesty  was  graciously  pleased  to  return  them, 
and  they  severally  kissed  hands  on  their  re-appointment. 

By  the  death  of  William  IV  the  crowns  of  the  United  Kingdom  and 
Hanover  were  dissevered  through  the  operation  of  the  Salic  law  exclud- 
ing females  from  the  Hanoverian  throne,  which  consequently  descended 
to  the  next  heir,  the  Duke  of  Cumberland  ;  and  Adelaide,  as  Queen 
Dowager,  was  entitled  to  /' 100, 000  per  annum,  settled  upon  her  for  life 
in  1 83 1,  with  Marlborough  house  and  Bushy  house  for  residences. 

INSURRECTION  IN  CANADA. 

For  some  time  there  had  been  symptoms  of  discontent  in  Lower 
Canada,  fomented  by  the  old  French  party,  which  at  length  broke  out 

208 


7. 

> 

> 

r 

CO 

> 
H 
H 

r 
m 

c 

> 
< 

> 

I— I 

?; 

o 


u 
< 
tn 

Q 

f-. 

D 

X 


>- 
< 


< 
< 


MjMHlllllllHailiiKU.I   I  lll.liJ,    lU   lllilJIIIB 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  2  I  1 

into  the  appearance  of  a  civil  war.  To  check  an  evil  so  pregnant  with 
mischief,  it  was  deemed  advisable  that  no  ordinary  person  should  be  sent 
out  to  that  important  colony.  Accordingly,  it  was  notified  that  the  Earl 
of  Durham,  G.  C.  B.,  was  appointed  Governor-General  of  "all  Her 
Majesty's  provinces  within  and  adjacent  to  the  Continent  of  North 
America,  and  Her  Majesty's  high  commissioner  for  the  adjustment  of 
certain  important  affairs  affecting  the  provinces  of  Lower  and  Upper 
Canada."  His  Lordship  did  not  arrive  in  Canada  till  nearly  the  end  of 
May,  1838.  Actual  contests  had  taken  place  between  considerable 
parties  of  the  insurgents  and  the  troops  under  Lieutenant-Colonel 
Wetherall,  who  had  succeeded  in  drivino-  them  from  all  the  villaees  on 
the  line  of  the  Richelieu  River.  At  length,  on  the  13th  of  December, 
Sir  John  Colborne  himself  marched  from  Montreal  to  attack  the  chief 
post  of  the  rebels  at  the  Grand  Brule.  On  the  following  day  an  engage- 
ment took  place  in  the  church-yard  of  St.  Eustache,  when  the  Loyalist 
army  proved  once  more  victorious,  80  of  the  enemy  having  been  killed 
and  120  taken  prisoners.  Dr.  J.  O.  Chenier,  their  leader,  was  slain,  and 
the  town  was  more  than  half  burned  down.  On  the  15th,  on  Sir  John 
Colborne's  approach  to  the  town  of  St.  Benoit,  a  great  portion  of  the 
inhabitants  came  out  bearing  a  white  flag  and  begging  for  mercy,  but  in 
consequence  of  the  great  disloyalty  of  the  place,  and  the  fact  of  the 
principal  leaders  having  been  permitted  to  escape,  some  of  their  houses 
were  fired  as  an  example.  Dr.  Wilfred  Nelson,  one  of  the  rebel  leaders, 
having  been  nine  days  concealed  in  the  woods,  was  brought  in  prisoner 
to  Montreal.  In  the  Upper  Province  a  body  of  rebels,  which  occupied  a 
position  about  three  miles  from  Toronto,  threatening  that  city,  were 
successfully  attacked  and  dispersed  on  the  jth  of  December  by  Sir 
Francis  Bond  Head,  at  the  head  of  the  armed  citizens,  with  such  rein- 
forcements as  had  spontaneously  joined  them  from  the  country.  The 
rebels  had,  however,  established  a  camp  on  Navy  Island,  on  the  Niagara 
River,  and  many  citizens  of  the  United  States  were  implicated  in  the 
insurrectionary  movements  there  and  elsewhere  on  the  frontier. 

SUPPRESSION  OF  THE  INSURGENTS. 

On  the  3d  of  March,  1838,  a  sharp  engagement  took  place  between 
Her  Majesty's  troops  and  the  insurgents,  in  which  the  latter  were  totally 
defeated  at  Point  Pele  Island,  near  the  western  boundary  of  the  British 


212  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

possessions.  This  island  had  been  occupied  by  about  500  men,  well 
armed  and  equipped  ;  when  Colonel  Maitland,  in  order  to  dispossess 
them,  marched  from  Amherstburgh  with  a  few  companies  of  the  32d  and 
83d  regiments,  two  six-pounders  and  some  volunteer  cavalry.  The 
action  that  followed  assumed  the  character  of  bush-fighting — the  island, 
which  is  about  seven  miles  long,  being  covered  with  thicket,  and  the 
pirates  outnumbered  the  troops  in  the  proportion  of  nearly  two  to  one. 
Ultimately,  however,  they  were  driven  to  flight,  leaving  among  the  dead, 
Colonel  Bradley,  the  Commander-in-Chief;  Major  Howdley  and  Captain 
Van  Rensellaer  and  McKeon,  besides  a  great  many  wounded  and  other 
prisoners.  The  insurgents  being  thus  foiled  In  their  daring  attempt,  it 
is  not  necessary,  for  the  present,  for  us  to  allude  further  to  Canadian 
affairs  than  to  observe  that  some  of  the  most  active  ringleaders  were 
executed,  and  others  transported  to  the  island  of  Bermuda. 

INDEMNITY  IN  CANADA. 

Lord  Durham  had  been  sent  out  with  extraordinary  powers  to  meet 
the  exigency  of  affairs  in  Canada.  It  was  now  admitted  that  he  had 
exceeded  the  scope  of  those  powers  by  deciding  on  the  guilt  of  accused 
men  without  trial,  and  by  banishing  and  imprisoning  them  ;  but  the 
British  Ministers  thought  It  their  duty  to  acquiesce  in  passing  a  bill, 
which,  v/hile  it  recited  the  illegality  of  the  ordinance  Issued  by  his  lord- 
ship, should  Indemnify  those  who  had  advised  or  acted  under  It,  on  the 
score  of  their  presumed  good  Intentions.  The  ordinance  set  forth  that 
"  Wilfred  Nelson,  R.  S.  M.  Bouchette  and  others,  now  in  Montreal  jail, 
having  acknowledged  their  treasons  and  submitted  themselves  to  the 
will  and  pleasure  of  Her  Majesty,  shall  be  transported  to  the  island  of 
Bermuda,  not  to  return  on  pain  of  death  ;  and  the  same  penalty  Is  to  be 
incurred  by  Papineau,  and  others  who  have  absconded,  If  found  at  large 
In  the  province."  Government  had  Intended  merely  to  substitute  a 
temporary  legislative  power  during  the  suspension  of  and  in  substitution 
for  the  ordinary  legislature  ;  and  as  the  ordinary  legislature  would  not 
have  had  power  to  pass  such  an  ordinance,  it  was  argued  that  neither 
could  this  power  belong  to  the  substituted  authority. 

The  passing  of  the  Indemnity  act  made  a  great  sensation  as  soon  as 
it  was  known  in  Canada  ;  and  Lord  Durham,  acutely  feeling  that  his 
implied  condemnation  was  contained  in  it,  declared  his  intention  to  resign 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  213 

and  return  immediately  to  England,  inasmuch  as  he  was  now  deprived  of 
the  ability  to  do  the  good  which  he  had  hoped  to  accomplish. 

OUTBREAK  IN  ACADIE. 

Meanwhile  the  Canadas  again  became  the  scene  of  rebellious  war 
and  piratical  invasion.  The  rebels  occupied  Beauharnois  anci  Acadie, 
near  the  confluence  of  the  Richelieu  and  the  St.  Lawrence,  establishing 
their  headquarters  at  Napierville  ;  and  their  forces  mustered,  at  one  time, 
to  the  number  8000  men,  generally  well  armed.  Several  actions  took 
place  ;  and  Sir  John  Colborne,  who  had  proclaimed  martial  law,  concen- 
trated his  troops  at  Napierville  and  Chateauguay,  and  executed  a  severe 
vengeance  upon  the  rebels  whom  he  found  there,  burning  the  houses  of 
the  disaffected  through  the  whole  district  of  Acadie.  But  it  was  a  part 
of  the  plan  of  the  traitors  and  their  republican  confederates  to  distract 
the  attention  of  the  British  commander  and  to  divide  the  military  force  by 
invading  Upper  Canada  ;  and  at  the  moment  Sir  John  Colborne  was 
putting  the  last  hand  to  the  suppression  of  the  rebellion  in  Beauharnois 
and  Acadie,  800  republican  pirates  embarked  in  two  schooners  at 
Ogdensburgh,  fully  armed  and  provided  with  six  or  eight  pieces  of 
artillery,  to  attack  the  town  of  Prescott  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river. 
By  the  aid  of  two  United  States  steamers  they  effected  a  landing  a  mile 
or  two  below  the  town,  where  they  established  themselves  in  a  windmill 
and  some  stone  buildings,  and  repelled  the  first  attempt  made  to  dislodge 
them,  killing  and  wounding  45  of  their  assailants,  among  whom  were  five 
officers  ;  but  on  Colonel  Dundas  arriving  with  a  reinforcement  of  regular 
troops,  with  three  pieces  of  artillery,  they  surrendered  at  discretion. 
Some  other  skirmishes  subsequently  took  place,  chiefly  between  Ameri- 
can desperadoes,  who  invaded  the  British  territory,  and  the  Queen's 
troops  ;  but  the  former  were  severely  punished  for  their  temerity.  The 
conduct  of  Sir  John  Colborne  elicited  the  praise  of  all  parties  at  home ; 
and  he  was  appointed  Governor-General  of  Canada,  with  all  the  powers 
which  had  been  vested  in  the  Earl  of  Durham. 

PERSIAN  INVASION  OF  AFGHANISTAN. 

For  a  considerable  time  past  the  Government  of  India  had  been 
adopting  very  active  measures,  in  consequence  of  the  Shah  of  Persia, 
who  was  raised  to  the  throne  mainly  b\-  British  assistance,  being  supposed 


2  14  STORY   OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

to  be  acting  under  Russian  influence,  to  the  prejudice  of  this  country. 
Stimulated  by  Russia,  as  it  appeared,  the  Persian  undertook,  in  1837, 
an  expedition  to  Herat,  an  important  place,  to  which  a  small  principality 
was  attached,  in  the  territory  of  Afghanistan.  Lord  Auckland,  the 
Governor-General  of  India,  thereupon  determined  to  send  an  army  of 
30,000  men  toward  Candahar,  Cabul  and  Herat ;  and  this  force  was  to 
be  joined  by  Runjeet  Singh,  the  sovereign  of  the  Punjaub.  In  the  mean- 
time it  appeared  that  the  Persians  had  suffered  great  loss  at  Herat.  It 
was  soon  afterwards  rumored  that  the  Chiefs  of  Afghanistan  were  pre- 
pared to  meet  a  much  stronger  force  than  the  Anglo-Indian  Government, 
though  reinforced  by  Runjeet  Singh,  could  bring  into  the  field,  and  that 
they  would  listen  to  no  terms  of  accommodation.  The  ne.xt  accounts, 
however,  announced  that  the  British  had  entered  Candahar ;  that  the 
difficulties  experienced  with  respect  to  provisions  had  vanished,  and  that 
the  troops  were  received  with  open  arms.  Shah  Soojah  was  crowned 
with  acclamation,  and  the  army  proceeded  forthwith  to  Cabul. 

On  the  2 1  St  of  September  the  fort  of  joudpore,  in  Rajpootana,  sur- 
rendered to  the  British  ;  and  that  of  Kurnaul,  in  the  Decan,  on  the  6th 
of  October.  The  camp  of  the  Rajah  was  attacked  by  General  Willshire, 
which  ended  in  the  total  rout  of  the  enemy.  A  very  great  quantity  of 
military  stores  were  found  in  Kurnaul,  and  treasure  amounting  to  nearly 
^1,000,000.  In  the  camp  an  immense  quantity  of  jewels  were  captured, 
besides  ^150,000  in  specie.  The  Shah  of  Persia  consented  to  acknowl- 
edge Shah  Soojah  as  Ameer  of  Afghanistan  ;  but  Dost  Mahomed,  the 
deposed  Prince,  was  still  at  large,  and  there  was  no  doubt  that  a  widely 
ramified  conspiracy  existed  among  the  native  chiefs  to  rise  against  the 
British  on  the  first  favorable  opportunity. 

THE  CHARTIST  AGITATION. 

Great  Britain  was  much  disturbed  during  the  years  1839-40  by 
large  and  tumultuous  assemblages  of  the  people,  of  a  revolutionary 
character,  under  the  name  of  Chartists  ;  and  many  excesses  were  com- 
mitted by  them  in  the  large  manufacturing  towns  of  Manchester,  Bolton, 
Birmingham,  Stockport,  etc.,  that  required  the  strong  arm  of  the  law  to 
curb.  This  was  alluded  to  in  Her  Majesty's  speech  at  the  close  of  the 
Session  of  Parliament,  as  the  first  attempts  at  insubordination,  which 
happily  had  been  checked  by  the  fearless  administration  of  the  law. 


^ 

WSf^^'      '^^'        VH 

:1 

^.^^1               c.-^i          ^B 

3^ — ~            jytB                    ^1 

/          J 

^H        ^'  1 

i^'^L^y 

"'m 

1    ,. 

1^11  /-'''JHIH 

mS^^^m 

J 

^^K^'^'v 

1 

^^^^n-              ViBr            ^^1 

as 


?: 


02 


■r. 

w 

o 

< 

3 


STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS.  21/ 

On  the  loth  of  December,  1839,  a  special  commission  was  held  iit 
Monmouth  for  the  trial  of  the  Chartist  rebels  at  Newport,  before  Lord- 
Chief-Justice  Tindal  and  the  Judges  Park  and  Williams  ;  the  Chief  Justice 
opening  the  proceedings  with  a  luminous  and  eloquent  charge  to  the 
Grand  Jury.  Accordingly,  on  the  12th,  true  bills  were  returned  against 
John  Frost,  Charles  Waters,  James  Aust,  William  Jones,  John  Lovell, 
Zephaniah  Williams,  Jenkin  Morgan,  Solomon  Britton,  Edmond 
Edmonds,  Richard  Benfield,  John  Rees,  David  Jones  and  John  Terner 
(otherwise  Coles),  for  high  treason.  In  order  to  comply  with  the  forms 
customary  in  trials  for  high  treason,  the  court  was  then  adjourned  to 
December  31st,  when  John  Frost  was  put  to  the  bar.  The  first  day  was 
occupied  in  challenging  the  jury  ;  the  next  day  the  Attorney-General 
addressed  the  court  and  jury  on  the  part  of  the  crown,  and  the  prisoner's 
counsel  objected  to  the  calling  of  the  witnesses  in  consequence  of  the  list 
of  them  not  having  been  given  to  the  prisoner  Frost,  agreeably  to  the 
terms  of  the  statute  ;  on  the  third  day  the  evidence  was  entered  into  ; 
and  on  the  eighth  day,  after  the  most  patient  attention  of  the  court  and 
jury,  a  verdict  of  guilty  was  recorded  against  Frost,  with  recommendation 
to  mercy.  The  trials  of  Williams  and  Jones  each  occupied  four  days, 
with  a  like  verdict  and  recommendation.  Walters,  Morgan,  Rees,  Ben- 
field  and  Lovell  pleaded  guilty,  and  received  sentence  of  death,  the  court 
intimating  that  they  would  be  transported  for  life.  Four  were  discharged, 
two  forfeited  their  bail,  and  nine  having  pleaded  guilty  to  charges  of  con- 
spiracy and  riot,  were  sentenced  to  terms  of  imprisonment  not  exceeding 
one  year.  Frost  and  the  other  ringleaders,  on  whom  sentence  of  death 
had  been  passed,  were  finally  transported  for  life. 

ATTEMPT  TO  BURN  SHEFFIELD. 

The  spirit  of  Chartism,  though  repressed,  was  not  subdued.  Sunday, 
January  12,  1840,  had  been  fixed  on  for  outbreak  in  various  parts  of  the 
country;  but  by  the  precautionary  measures  of  government  and  the 
police  their  designs  were  frustrated.  Information  was  afterwards  received 
that  the  Chartists  intended  to  fire  the  town  of  Sheffield.  They  began  to 
assemble,  but  troops  and  constables  being  on  the  alert,  they  succeeded 
in  taking  the  ringleaders,  but  not  before  several  persons  were  wounded, 
three  of  whom  were  policemen.  An  immense  quantity  of  fire-arms,  ball 
cartridges,   iron  bullets,    hand-grenades,   fire-balls,  daggers,    pikes    and 


2l8  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

swords  were  found,  together  with  a  quantity  of  crow-feet  for  disabling 
horses.  The  ringleaders  were  committed  to  York  Castle,  and  at  the 
ensuing  assizes  were  tried,  found  guilty  and  sentenced  to  various  terms 
of  imprisonment — of  one,  two  and  three  years.  At  the  same  time  four 
of  the  Bradford  Chartists  were  sentenced  to  three  years'  imprisonment, 
and  three  from  Barnsley  for  the  term  of  two  years.  At  the  same  assizes 
Feargus  O'Connor  was  convicted  of  having  published  in  the  "  Northern 
Star "  newspaper,  of  which  he  was  the  editor  and  proprietor,  certain 
seditious  libels  ;  and  the  noted  demaCTocjue  orators,  Vincent  and  Edwards, 
who  were  at  the  time  undergoing  a  former  sentence  in  prison,  were 
convicted  at  Monmouth  of  a  conspiracy  to  effect  great  changes  in  the 
Government  by  illegal  means,  etc.,  and  were  severally  sentenced  to  a 
further  imprisonment  to  twelve  and  fourteen  months.  In  various  other 
places,  also,  London  among  the  rest.  Chartist  conspirators  were  tried 
and  punished  for  their  misdeeds.  Out  of  this  agitation,  however,  sprang 
the  Anti-Corn-Law  League,  of  which  we  shall  hear  more. 

MARRIAGE   OF   QUEEN   VICTORIA. 

For  the  space  of  two  years  and  a  half  the  British  sceptre  had  been 
swayed  by  a  "  virgin  queen";  it  was  therefore  by  no  means  surprising 
that  Her  Majesty  should  at  length  consider  that  the  cares  of  regal  state 
might  be  rendered  more  supportable  if  shared  by  a  consort.  That  such, 
indeed,  had  been  the  subject  of  her  royal  musings  was  soon  made  evi- 
dent;  for,  on  the  i6th  of  January,  she  met  her  Parliament,  and  com- 
menced her  speech  with  the  following  plain  and  unaffected  sentence  : 
"My  Lords  and  gentlemen  : — Since  you  were  last  assembled  I  have  de- 
clared my  intention  of  allying  myself  in  marriage  with  Prince  Albert  of 
Saxe-Coburg  and  Gotha.  I  humbly  implore  that  the  divine  blessing  may 
prosper  this  union,  and  render  it  conducive  to  the  interests  of  my  people, 
as  well  as  to  my  own  domestic  happiness." 

On  the  6th  of  the  ensuing  month,  the  bridegroom-elect,  conducted 
by  Viscount  Torrington,  and  accompanied  by  the  Duke  his  father,  and 
his  elder  brother,  arrived  at  Dover;  and  on  the  loth  "the  marriage  of 
the  Queen's  Most  Excellent  Majesty  with  the  Field-Marshal  His  Royal 
Hiofhness  Francis  Albert  Aucjustus  Charles  Emanuel,  Duke  of  Saxe, 
Prince  of  Saxe-Coburg  and  Gotha,  K.  G.,  was  solemnized  at  the  chapel- 
royal,  St.  James.     The  processions   of  the  royal  bride  and  bridegroom 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  2I9 

were  conducted  in  a  style  of  splendor  suitable  to  the  occasion.  The 
Duke  of  Sussex  gave  away  his  royal  niece  ;  and  at  that  part  of  the  ser- 
vice where  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury'  reads  the  words,  "  I  pronounce 
that  they  be  man  and  wife  together,"  the  park  and  tower  guns  were  fired. 
In  the  afternoon  Her  Majesty  and  the  Prince  proceeded  to  Windsor 
Castle  ;  a  banquet  was  given  at  St.  James'  Palace  to  the  members  of  the 
household,  which  was  honored  by  the  presence  of  the  Duchess  of  Kent, 
and  the  reigning  Duke  and  hereditary  Prince  of  Saxe-Coburg  ;  and  the 
day  was  universally  kept  as  a  holiday  throughout  the  country  ;  grand  din- 
ners were  given  by  the  cabinet  ministers,  and  in  the  evening  the  splendid 
illumination  of  the  metropolis  gave  additional  eclat  to  the  hymeneal 
rejoicings. 

THE  OPIUM  WAR. 

For  many  months  past  there  had  been  an  interruption  to  those  rela- 
tions of  amity  and  commerce  which  for  a  long  period  had  been  main- 
tained between  England  and  China.  It  originated  in  the  determination 
on  the  part  of  the  Chinese  Government  to  put  an  end  to  the  importation 
of  opium  into  the  "  Celestial  Empire,"  and  the  opposition  made  to  that 
decree  by  British  merchants  engaged  in  that  traffic.  Early  in  the  yeaf 
1840  a  large  quantity  of  opium  belonging  to  British  merchants  was  given 
up  on  the  requisition  of  Mr.  Elliot,  the  Queen's  representative  at  Canton, 
to  be  destroyed  by  the  Chinese  authorities.  The  quantity  seized  was 
20,000  chests,  supposed  to  be  worth  /'a, 000,000  ;  and  Mr.  Elliot  pledged 
the  faith  of  the  government  he  represented  that  the  merchants 
should  receive  compensation. 

The  English  Government  was  naturally  desirous  to  keep  on  good 
terms  with  a  country  from  whom  so  many  commercial  advantages  had 
been  derived  ;  but  the  Chinese  authorities  daily  grew  more  arrogant  and 
unreasonable,  and  several  outraees  against  the  English  were  committed. 
At  length,  in  an  affray  between  some  seamen  of  the  "  Yolage  "  and  the 
Chinese,  one  of  the  latter  was  killed  ;  and  on  Captain  Elliot  having  re- 
fused to  deliver  up  the  homicide  to  Commissioner  Lin,  the  most  severe 
and  arbitrary^  measures  were  immediately  taken  to  expel  all  the  British 
inhabitants  from  Macao.  This  hostile  conduct  was  quickly  followed  by 
an  outbreak  of  a  still  more  serious  character.  The  "  Black  Joke," 
having  on  board  one  passenger,  a  Mr.  Moss,  and  six  Lascars,  was  obliged 
to  anchor  in  the  Lantaod  passage,  to  wait  for  the   tide.     Here  she  was 


2  20  STORV    OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

surrounded  by  three  mandarin  boats,  by  whose  crews  she  was  boarded. 
Five  of  the  Lascars  were  butchered  and  Mr.  Ross  was  shockingly 
mutilated. 

HOSTILITIB^S  AT  MACAO. 

These  proceedings  gave  rise  to  further  measures  of  hostility.  On 
the  4th  of  September,  1840,  Captain  Elliot  came  from  Hong  Kong  to 
Macao  in  his  cutter,  in  company  with  the  schooner  "  Pearl,"  to  obtain 
provisions  for  the  fleet.  The  mandarins,  however,  on  board  the  war- 
junks,  opposed  their  embarkation,  when  Captain  Elliot  intimated  that  if 
in  half  an  hour  the  provisions  were  not  allowed  to  pass,  he  would  open 
fire  upon  them.  The  half  hour  passed,  and  the  gun  was  fired.  Three 
war-junks  then  endeavored  to  put  to  sea,  but  were  compelled  by  a  well- 
directed  fire  of  the  cutter  and  the  "Pearl  "  to  seek  shelter  under  the 
walls  of  Kowloon  Fort.  About  6  o'clock  the  "  Volage"  frigate  hove  in 
sight,  and  the  boat  of  Captain  Douglas,  with  twenty-four  British  seamen, 
attempted  to  board  the  junk,  but  without  success.  The  boat's  crew  then 
opened  a  fire  of  musketry,  by  which  a  mandarin  and  four  Chinese 
soldiers  were  killed  and  seven  wounded.  The  result,  however,  was  that 
the  provisions  were  not  obtained  and  the  Chinese  junks  escaped  ;  while, 
instead  of  any  approach  to  a  better  understanding  between  the  two  coun- 
tries, it  was  regarded  rather  as  the  commencement  of  a  war,  which,  in- 
deed, the  next  news  from  China  confirmed. 

DESTRUCTION   OF  CHINESE   FLEET. 

On  the  appearance  of  another  British  ship,  the  "  Thomas  Coutts," 
atWhampoa,  Commissioner  Lin  renewed  his  demand  for  the  surrender  of 
the  murderer  of  the  Chinese,  and  issued  an  edict  commanding  all  British 
ships  to  enter  the  port  of  Canton  and  sign  the  opium  bond,  or  to  depart 
from  the  coast  immediately.  In  case  of  non-compliance  with  either  of 
these  conditions  within  three  days,  the  commissioner  declared  he  would 
destroy  the  entire  British  fleet.  On  the  publication  of  this  edict,  Cap- 
tain Elliot  demanded  an  explanation  from  the  Chinese  admiral,  Kawn, 
who  at  first  pretended  to  enter  into  a  negotiation,  but  immediately 
afterwards  ordered  out  twenty-nine  war-junks,  evidently  intending  to 
surround  the  British  ships.  The  attempt  ended  in  five  of  the  junks  being 
sunk  and  another  blown  up,  each  with  from  150  to  200  men  on  board, 
and  on  the  rest  making  off.  Captain  Elliot  ordered  the  firing  to  cease. 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  22  1 

A  decree  was  now  issued  by  the  Emperor  prohibiting  the  importa- 
tion of  all  British  goods,  and  the  trade  with  China  was  consequently  at 
an  end ;  but  the  American  ships  arrived  and  departed  as  usual.  In  the 
meantime  preparations  on  a  large  scale  were  making  in  India  to  col- 
lect and  send  a  large  force  to  China,  so  as  to  bring  this  important  quarrel 
to  an  issue.  Several  men-of-war  and  corvettes  from  England  and 
various  stations  were  got  ready,  and  the  command  given  to  Admiral 
Elliot  to  give  the  expedition  all  the  co-operation  possible. 

ATTEMPT  TO  ASSASSINATE  QUEEN  VICTORIA. 

A  great  sensation  was  caused  in  the  public  mind  by  an  attempt  to 
assassinate  the  Queen.  On  the  loth  of  June,  as  Her  Majesty  was  start- 
ing for  an  evening  drive,  up  Constitution  Hill,  in  a  low,  open  carriage 
accompanied  by  Prince  Albert,  a  young  man  deliberately  fired  two  pistols 
at  her,  but  happily  without  effect.  His  name  proved  to  be  Edward 
Oxford,  the  son  of  a  widow  who  formerly  kept  a  coffee-shop  in  South- 
wark.  He  was  about  eighteen  years  of  age,  and  had  been  lately  em- 
ployed as  a  pot  boy  in  Oxford  street,  but  was  out  of  place.  He  was 
instantly  seized  and  sent  to  Newgate  on  a  charge  of  high  treason  ;  but 
it  appeared  on  his  trial  that  there  were  grounds  for  attributing  the  act 
to  insanity,  and  as  there  was  no  proof  that  the  pistols  were  loaded, 
the  jury  returned  a  verdict  of  "guilty,  but  that  at  the  time  he  committed 
the  act  he  was  insane." 

LOUIS  NAPOLEON  AT  BOULOGNE. 

It  is  some  time  since  we  had  occasion  to  notice  anything  relative 
to  French  affairs  ;  but  an  event  transpired  in  August,  1840,  which  we 
cannot  well  omit.  On  the  6th  of  that  month  Louis  Napoleon,  son  of  the 
late  King  of  Holland,  and  male  heir  of  the  Bonaparte  family,  made  an 
absurd  attempt  to  effect  a  hostile  descent  upon  the  coast  of  France. 
He  embarked  from  London  in  the  "Edinburgh  Castle"  steamer,  which 
he  had  hired  from  the  Commercial  Steam  Navigation  Company,  as  for 
a  voyage  of  pleasure,  accompanied  by  about  fifty  men,  including  General 
Montholon,  Colonels  Voisen,  Laborde,  Montauban  and  Parquin,  and 
several  other  officers  of  inferior  rank.  They  landed  at  a  small  port 
about  two  leagues  from  Boulogne,  to  which  town  they  immediately 
marched,  and  arrived  at  the  barracks   at  about   5    o'clock,  just  as  the 


---  STORY    OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

soldiers  of  the  Forty-second  Regiment  of  tlie  line  were  rising  from  their 
beds.  At  first  the  soldiers  were  a  little  staggered,  as  they  understood 
a  revolution  had  taken  place  in  Paris,  and  they  were  summoned  to 
join  the  imperial  eagle.  One  of  their  officers,  however,  having  hurried 
to  the  barracks,  soon  relieved  the  men  from  their  perplexity,  and  they 
acknowledged  his  authority.  Louis  Napoleon  drew  a  pistol  and  at- 
tempted to  shoot  the  inopportune  intruder,  but  the  shot  took  effect 
upon  a  soldier,  who  died  the  same  day.  Finding  themselves  thus  foiled, 
the  Bonapartists  took  the  Calais  road  to  the  Colonne  de  Napoleon, 
upon  the  top  of  which  they  placed  their  flag.  The  town  authorities 
and  national  guard  then  went  in  pursuit  of  the  Prince,  who,  being  in- 
tercepted on  the  side  of  the  column,  made  for  the  beach,  with  a  view 
to  embark  and  regain  the  packet  in  which  he  had  arrived.  He  took 
possession  of  the  lifeboat,  but  scarcely  had  his  followers  gotten  into  it 
when  the  national  guard  also  arrived  on  the  beach  and  discharged  a 
volley  on  the  boat,  which  im.mediately  upset,  and  the  whole  company 
were  seen  struggling  in  the  sea.  In  the  meantime  the  steam-packet 
was  already  taken  possession  of  by  the  lieutenant  of  the  port.  The 
Prince  was  then  made  prisoner,  and  about  three  hours  after  his  attempt 
on  Boulogne  he  and  his  followers  were  safely  lodged  in  the  castle. 
From  Boulogne  he  was  removed  to  the  castle  at  Ham,  and  placed  in  the 
rooms  once  occupied  by  Prince  Polignac.  On  being  tried  and  found 
guilty,  Louis  Napoleon  was  sentenced  to  perpetual  imprisonment  in  a 
fortress ;  Count  Montholon,  twenty  years'  detention  ;  Parquin  and  Lom- 
bard, the  same  period ;  others  were  sentenced  to  shorter  periods  ; 
Aldenize  was  transported  for  life,  and  some  were  acquitted. 

REMAINS  OF  BONAPARTE  BROUGHT  HOME. 

This  insane  attempt  to  excite  a  revolution  probably  owed  its  origin 
to  the  "liberal"  permission  granted  by  Louise  Philippe  and  the  no  less 
liberal  acquiescence  of  the  English  ministers  to  allow  the  ashes  of  the 
Emperor  Napoleon  to  be  removed  from  St.  Helena,  that  they  might  find 
their  last  resting  place  in  France.  This  had  undoubtedly  raised  the 
hopes  of  many  a  zealous  Bonapartist,  who  thought  that  the  fervor  of 
the  populace  was  likely  to  display  itself  in  a  violent  emeute,  which  the 
troops  would  be  more  ready  to  favor  than  to  quell.  A  grant  of  a 
million  of  francs  had  been  made  to  defray  the  expenses   of  the  expedi- 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  223 

tion  to  St.  Helena,  which  was  to  be  under  the  command  of  Prince  de 
Joinville,  the  funeral  ceremony,  and  the  erection  of  a  tomb  in  the  Church 
of  the  Invaiides  ;  so  that,  in  the  language  of  the  French  Minister  of  the 
Interior,  "  his  tomb,  like  his  glory,  should  belong  to  his  country."  The 
Prince  arrived  at  Cherbourg  with  his  special  charge  on  the  30th  of  No- 
vember, and  on  the  15th  of  December  Napoleon's  remains  were  honored 
by  a  splendid  funeral  procession,  the  King  and  royal  family  being 
present  at  the  ceremony,  with  60,000  national  guards  in  attendance  and 
an  attendance  of  500,000  persons. 

THE   BRITISH   PRINCESS-ROYAL. 

Queen  Victoria,  on  the  21st  of  November,  1840,  gave  birth,  at  Buck- 
ingham Palace,  to  a  princess,  her  first-born  child  ;  and  on  the  loth  of 
February  the  infant  princess-royal  was  christened  Victoria  Adelaide 
Mary  Louise. 

In  1838  the  Spanish  general  and  dictator,  Espartero,  conducted  a 
successful  campaign  against  the  Carlists.  In  the  following  year,  on 
August  31,  he  concluded  the  Treaty  of  Vergara  with  the  Carlist  leader, 
Maroto,  and  thus  the  Carlist  war  was,  for  the  time  being,  ended. 

The  year  1839  also  saw  a  settlement  of  the  disputes  between 
Holland  and  Belgium.  By  its  terms  Limburg  and  Luxemburg  were 
divided  between  the  two  kingdoms. 

TURKISH  AFFAIRS. 

The  Turkish  Sultan,  Mahmoud  II,  in  1839,  made  war  upon  Mehemet 
Ali,  Viceroy  of  Egypt.  The  Turkish  forces,  under  Hafiz  Pacha,  were 
utterly  routed  by  Ibrahim  Pacha  at  Nizib  on  June  24th.  Mahmoud  died 
a  week  later  and  was  succeeded  by  Abdul  Mejid.  A  few  days  after- 
ward the  Turkish  fleet  was  treacherously  surrendered  to  the  Eg)-ptians. 
Chastened  by  defeat,  Abdul  Mejid,  under  the  guidance  of  Reschid  Pacha, 
began  a  general  constitutional  reform  of  the  domestic  affairs  of  the  Em- 
pire, with  the  "  Hatti  Shereef,"  a  reform  proclamation,  of  Gulhane,  on 
November  3d. 

In  1840  an  alliance  was  entered  into  between  England,  Russia,  Aus- 
tria and  Prussia,  to  put  an  end  to  the  dispute  between  the  Sultan  and 
Mehemet  Ali.  For  this  purpose  it  was  deemed  expedient  to  dispatch 
a  fleet  to  the  Mediterranean  ;  and  on  the   14th  of  August  Commodore 


22  4  STORY    OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

Napier  summoned  the  Egyptian  autliorities  to  evacuate  Syria.  In  reply 
to  tiiis  summons,  Mehemet  Ali  declared  that  on  the  first  appearance 
of  hostility  by  the  powers  of  Europe,  the  Pacha  Ibrahim  would  be  com- 
manded to  march  on  Constantinople.  Soon  afterwards  hostilities  com- 
menced, and  the  town  of  Beyrout  was  bombarded  on  the  iith  of  Sep- 
tember and  completely  destroyed  by  the  allies  in  two  hours.  The  war  in 
Syria  was  now  carried  on  with  great  activity.  The  troops  of  Ibrahim 
sustained  a  signal  defeat  early  in  October,  with  a  loss  of  7000  in  killed, 
wounded  and  prisoners  ;  in  addition  to  which  Commodore  Napier,  with  a 
comparatively  trifling  number  of  marines  and  Turkish  troops,  succeeded 
in  expelling  the  Egyptians  from  nearly  the  whole  of  Lebanon,  captured 
about  5000  prisoners,  with  artillery  and  stores,  and  effected  the  disor- 
ganization of  an  army  of  20,000  men.  In  short,  more  brilliant  results 
with  such  limited  means  have  rarely  been  known,  particularly  when  it  is 
considered  under  what  novel  circumstances  they  were  accomplished. 
But  the  great  exploit  remains  to  be  related. 

FALL  OF  ACRE. 

St.  Jean  d'Acre  was  taken  by  the  allies  on  the  3d  of  November. 
Colonel  Smith,  who  commanded  the  forces  in  Syria,  directed  Omar  Bey, 
with  2000  Turks,  to  advance  on  Tyre,  and  occupy  the  passes  to  the 
northward  of  Acre.  In  the  meantime  Admiral  Stopford  sailed  from  Bey- 
rout Roads,  having  on  board  3000  Turks  and  detachments  of  English 
artillery  and  sappers.  The  forces  and  fleet  arrived  off  Acre  at  the  same 
time.  At  2  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  a  tremendous  cannonade  took  place, 
which  was  maintained  without  intermission  for  some  hours,  the  steamers, 
lying  outside,  throwing,  with  astonishing  rapidity,  their  shells  over  the 
ships  into  the  fortifications.  During  the  bombardment  the  arsenal  and 
magazine  blew  up,  annihilating  upwards  of  twelve  hundred  of  the  enemy, 
forming  two  entire  regiments,  who  were  drawn  up  on  the  ramparts.  A 
sensation  was  felt  on  board  the  ships  similar  to  that  of  an  earthquake. 
Every  living  creature  within  an  area  of  60,000  square  yards  ceased  to 
exist.  At  2  o'clock  on  the  following  morning-  a  boat  arrived  from  Acre 
to  announce  that  the  remainder  of  the  garrison  were  leaving  the  place, 
and  as  soon  as  the  sun  rose  the  British,  Austrian  and  Turkish  flags  were 
seen  waving  on  the  citadel.  The  town  was  found  to  be  one  mass  of 
ruins  ;  the  batteries  and   houses   riddled  all  over  ;  killed  and  wounded 


r 

H 

X 

o 
> 


o 


n 
o 

< 
w 

73 

5 

c 
<: 
n 

H 

C 

?3 


> 

z 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  22/ 

lying  about  in  all  directions.  The  slain  was  estimated  at  2500,  and  the 
prisoners  amounted  to  upwards  of  3000.  The  Turkish  troops  were 
landed  to  garrison  Acre,  where  a  vast  quantity  of  military  stores  were 
found,  besides  an  excellent  park  of  artillery  of  200  guns  and  a  large  sum 
in  specie. 

TERMS   OF   PEACE. 

As  the  foregoing  successes  led  to  the  termination  of  the  war  in  Syria 
and  its  evacuation  by  Ibrahim  Pacha,  it  is  unnecessary  to  speak  of  opera- 
tions of  a  minor  character.  Mehemet  Ali  eventually  submitted  to  all  the 
conditions  offered  by  the  Sultan,  and  which  were  sanctioned  by  the  rep- 
resentatives of  Austria,  France,  Great  Britain,  Prussia  and  Russia : 

"  1st.  The  hereditary  possession  of  Egypt  is  confirmed  to  Mehemet 
Ali  and  his  descendants  in  a  direct  line.  2d.  Mehemet  Ali  will  be 
allowed  to  nominate  his  own  officers  up  to  the  rank  of  a  colonel.  The 
Viceroy  can  only  confer  the  title  of  pacha  with  the  consent  of  the  Sultan. 
3d.  The  annual  contribution  is  fi.xed  at  80,000  purses,  or  40,000,000 
piastres.  4th.  The  Viceroy  will  not  be  allowed  to  build  a  ship  of  war 
without  the  permission  of  the  Sultan.  5.  The  laws  and  regulations  of 
the  Empire  are  to  be  observed  in  Egypt,  with  such  changes  as  the 
peculiarity  of  the  Egyptian  people  may  render  necessary,  but  which 
changes  must  receive  the  sanction  of  the  Porte." 

Changes  in  European  thrones  were  numerous  in  1S40.  Frederick 
William  IV  of  Prussia  succeeded  his  father,  Frederick  William  III. 
William  I  of  Holland  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  son,  William  II.  Maria 
Cristina  of  Spain  left  the  country,  and  Espartero  became  for  a  time  its 
real  ruler. 

The  introduction  of  penny  postage  in  England  by  Rowland  Hill  was 
one  of  the  most  noteworthy  incidents  of  the  year  1840. 

Russia  persisted  in  her  Central  Asian  conquests,  sending  in  1839 
an  expedition  under  General  Perovski  against  the  Khan  of  Khiva. 
This  expedition  met,  however,  with  complete  disaster  in  the  following 
year. 

The  death  of  the  famous  Sikh  ruler,  Runjeet  Singh,  "the  Lion  of 
the  Punjaub,"  made  the  year  1839  notable  in  Indian  annals.  In  that  year 
the  British  took  possession  of  Aden,  the  stronghold  at  the  lower  end  of 
the  Red  Sea,  thus  strengthening  their  control  of  the  road  to  India. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 


Regular  Steam    Navigation   of  Atlantic    Begun — The   "Great   Western" 
■ — Regular    Trips     Begun — The    "Great  Britain"  —  A    Fine    Ship's 
Bad    Luck  —  Origin     of    the    Cunard     Line  —  Antarctic    Ex- 
plorations— Wilkes's  Expedition — "Erebus"  and  "Terror" 
— New  Year's  at   Mount    Sabine — Antarctic   Vol- 
canoes —  The    Icy    Barrier  —  The    Attempt 
Abandoned — Origin  of  Photography — 
Temperance  Societies — Literary 
Progress. 


WHEN  it  was  first  proposed,  about  1836,  to  cross  the  Atlantic 
by  steam-power  alone,  the  idea  was  deemed  illusive.  Some 
of  the  most  distinguished  scientific  men  in  the  world  gave  a 
verdict  against  it,  and  prophesied  its  failure  in  no  unequivocal 
language.  At  the  command  of  these  philosophers  all  kinils  of  spectres 
rose  up  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  terrify  the  daring  men  who  had 
determined  to  make  the  attempt.  The  action  of  the  paddle-wheels  on 
the  water — the  waves,  and  storms,  and  currents  of  the  Atlantic — and  the 
quantity  of  coal  necessary  to  be  used,  were  all  made  the  subjects  of  nice 
calculations  such  as  no  person  could  dispute  ;  and  the  theorem  they  all 
tended  to  prove  was  that  the  project  was  utterly  impracticable.  To  men 
who  made  no  pretense  to  be  philosophers,  the  difficulties  in  the  way  were 
self-obvious.  Tlie  distance  to  be  traversed  was  at  least  3000  miles  of 
clear  ocean,  with  no  intervening  land  where  a  vessel  might  run  for  shelter 
or  supplies.  Mariners  knew  well  that  the  Atlantic  was  not  only  fre- 
quently agitated  by  terrific  storms,  but  that  its  currents  ran  across  the 
track  of  any  vessel  sailing  between  England  and  America. 

THE  ••  GREAT  WESTERN." 

However,  amid  all  this  thinking  and  prophesying,  amid  the  calcula- 
tions  of  philosophers  and  the   speculations  of  merchants,   hundreds   of 

228 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  229 

workmen  were  engaged  at  Bristol  in  constructing  a  large  steamer,  to  be 
called  the  "Great  Western,"  which  should  at  once  and  forever  set  the 
question  at  rest.  The  men  of  practice  did  not  share  the  doubts  of  the 
men  of  theory ;  capital  was  supplied  to  a  sufficient  extent,  and  the  public 
looked  on  in  anxious  expectation  of  the  result. 

The  "Great  Western"  sailed  from  Bristol  on  the  8th  of  April,  1838, 
having  on  board  660  tons  of  coal  and  seven  adventurous  passengers. 
Three  days  previously  the  "Sirius,"  a  smaller  vessel  than  the  former, 
built  to  ply  between  London  and  Cork,  had  steamed  from  the  latter  port 
right  in  the  teeth  of  a  strong  westerly  wind,  and  with  New  York  also  for 
her  destination.  Never  was  there  such  a  race  as  this  struggle  of  two 
steamers,  which  should  first  traverse  the  entire  breadth  of  the  wild 
Atlantic.  The  very  wind  seemed  to  be  angry  with  the  ships.  The 
"Sirius,"  that  had  the  start  by  three  days,  made  little  way  comparatively 
during  the  first  week.  She  carried  more  weight  in  proportion  than  the 
"  Great  Western,"  but  as  her  coals  were  consumed  she  became  more 
lively,  and,  in  sporting  phrase,  "  made  more  running."  Thus,  during  ihe 
first  week  she  was  out,  her  daily  run  was  never  more  than  136  miles; 
on  the  second  day  it  was  only  89.  The  "Great  Western,"  on  the  con- 
trary, made  10  miles  an  hour  during  the  second  day,  and  her  average 
daily  speed  during  the  entire  voyage  was  211  miles.  At  such  a  speed 
she  would  soon  overtake  the  "Sirius,"  that  had  a  start  by  about  400 
miles  only. 

As  the  little  vessel  g-ot  liijhter  her  swiftness  increased  ;  on  the 
14th  she  ran  218  miles,  as  much  as  the  "  Great  Western"  on  the  same 
day  ;  on  the  2 2d  she  ran  only  3  miles  less  than  the  large  ship,  but  the 
latter  was  then  in  the  same  parallel  of  latitude,  and  only  about  three 
degrees  of  longitude  behind.  Still  it  was  a  close  chase  ;  but  at  last  the 
"  Sirius,"  by  reason  of  her  long  start,  was  the  winner.  She  reached  New 
York  on  the  morning  of  the  23d,  and  the  "Great  Western  "  came  in  the 
same  afternoon. 

The  excitement  which  prevailed  in  New  York  respecting  these  voy 
ages  was  intense.  Previous  to  the  arrival  of  the  steamers  crowds  had 
daily  collected  on  the  quay,  gazing  wistfully  eastward  over  the  wide 
Atlantic.  Many  of  the  watchers  were  old  enough  to  remember  the  first 
voyage  of  Fulton's  "Folly,"  little  dreaming  then  what  the  future  of  that 
"  Folly"  was  to  be  ;  and  as  they  now  describe  that  memorable  voyage  to 


230  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

their  younger  brethren,  they  remember  how  the  predictions  of  the  wise 
had  been  falsified,  and  spoke  in  hope  rather  than  in  doubt  of  the  success 
of  the  steamers  from  the  Old  World.  And  never  were  hopes  so  well 
realized  as  when,  on  the  morning  of  the  23d  of  April,  a  streak  of  smoke, 
dim  and  undefined,  was  described  in  the  horizon  by  the  watchers  on  the 
quay.  "Could  it  be  a  steamer?" — "Was  it  the  steamer?" — passed 
from  mouth  to  mouth.  The  smoke  came  nearer ;  the  hull  hove  up,  as  it 
were,  out  of  the  ocean,  and  a  steamer  was  clearly  defined  advancing 
rapidly.  The  intelligence  spread  ;  the  city  poured  out  its  crowds  ;  and 
cheer  upon  cheer  arose  as  the  "  Sirius  "  steamed  into  the  harbor  and 
cast  in  the  Hudson  that  anchor  which,  only  eighteen  days  before,  had 
been  weighed  at  Cork.  Scarcely  had  the  good  citizens  time  to  recover 
from  their  first  surprise  when  the  "  Great  Western  "  appeared.  Stream- 
ing with  flags  and  crowded  with  people,  the  "Sirius"  lay  waiting  the 
arrival  of  her  competitor;  and  as  the  "  Great  Western  "  sailed  round 
her,  three  hearty  cheers  were  given  and  responded  to.  The  battery  fired 
a  salute  of  twenty-six  guns  ;  and  down  came  the  flag  of  the  "  Great 
Western,"  while  the  passengers,  amid  the  most  enthusiastic  cheering, 
drank  the  health  of  the  President  of  the  Great  Republic.  As  the  vessel 
proceeded  to  the  quay  "boats  crowded  round  us,"  says  the  journal  of 
one  of  the  passengers,  "in  countless  confusion  ;  flags  were  flying,  guns 
firingf  and  bells  rinofincf-  The  vast  multitude  set  up  a  shout — a  long 
enthusiastic  cheer — echoed  from  point  to  point,  and  from  boat  to  boat, 
till  it  seemed  as  though  they  never  would  have  done." 

REGULAR  TRIPS  BEGUN. 

The  "Great  Western"  continued  to  ply  regularly  and  successfully. 
From  1838  to  1844  she  made  thirty-five  outward  and  thirty-five  home- 
ward voyages — steaming  altogether  a  quarter  of  a  million  of  miles  in  all 
kinds  of  weather.  The  only  accident  that  befell  her  during  such  service 
was  "the  loss  of  a  bowsprit  in  coming  up  like  a  whale  to  blow  after  a 
rather  deeper  plunge  than  usual,  with  fair  headway  on  her  right  course 
and  aeainst  a  head-wind  and  sea."  The  averagre  distance  steamed  each 
voyage  was  nearly  3500  miles  (one  of  the  vojages  was  4698  miles  in 
length,  but  that  was  to  New  York  via  Madeira)  ;  the  time  occupied  in 
going  to  New  York  was  fifteen  days  twelve  hours,  and  in  returning, 
thirteen  days  nine  hours.     The  shortest  outward  run  was  in  May,  1843, 


JAMES  K, POLK 


MILLARD  riLLMORE 


JOHN   TYLER 


ZACHARY   TAYLOR 


ABRAHAM  LINCOLN 


FRANKLIN  PIERCE 


JAMES    BUCHANAN 


1841— PRESIDENTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  DURING  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY 


1847— BATTLP:  of  BUENA  vista— MEXICAN  WAR 


STOKV    OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 


233 


when  the  voyage  was  performed  in  twelve  days  eighteen  liours,  or  not 
much  more  than  a  third  of  the  average  time  taken  by  the  old  liners  ; 
and  the  shortest  passage  home  was  in  April-May,  1842,  in  twelve- 
days  seven  and  a  half  hours.  The  average  speed  outwards  was 
nine  and  a  half,  and  homeward  eleven  and  a  quarter  miles  per  hour. 
During  these  seventy  voyages  the  "Great  Western"  carried  3165 
passengers  to  New  York  and  brought  2609  home. 

THE  "GREAT  BRITAIN." 

According  to  Captain  Claxton,  Managing  Director  of  the 'Great 
Western  Steamship  Company,  "  no  sooner  had  the  '  Great  Western ' 
performed  her  voyage,  with  the  greatest  ease,  to  New  York  and  back, 
than  the  directors  found  that  steamships  of  larger  dimensions  would  offer 
better  chances  of  remuneration."  "They  now  determined  that  their 
second  ship  should  be  built  of  iron  instead  of  wood,  and  propelled  by  the 
screw  instead  of  the  paddle  wheel."  Accordingly  the  keel  of  the  "Great 
Britain"  was  laid  at  Bristol  in  1S39,  and  the  vessel  was  launched  in 
1843 — Prince  Albert  acting  as  sponsor  on  the  occasion.  The  misfortunes 
of  this  ill-fated  ship  began  at  the  cradle.  Perhaps  some  reader  may 
have  heard  of  the  keeper  of  the  lighthouse  whose  better-half  throve  so 
well  in  that  useful  building  that  for  years  all  exit  through  the  narrow 
door  was  denied  her  ;  and  after  her  worthy  husband  died  his  successor 
was  obliged  to  take  the  stout  widow  "for  better,  for  worse,"  as  one  of 
^he  fixtures  of  the  establishment.  The  "Great  Britain,"  at  the  outset  of 
her  career,  was  somewhat  like  the  heavy  lady  in  the  lighthouse ;  the 
addition  of  her  machinery  brought  her  lines  of  greatest  breath  so  low 
that  the  entrance  of  the  dock  or  basin  in  which  she  lay  would  not  permit 
her  exit,  and  the  greatest  ingenuity  of  the  greatest  engineers  was  exerted 
for  her  release.  She  was  freed  at  last,  and  proceeded  to  London,  Dublin 
and  Liverpool,  to  be  inspected  by  the  public  previous  to  sailing  for 
America. 

A  FINE  SHIP'S    BAD  LUCK. 

This  vessel  was,  in  every  sense  of  the  word,  magnificent.  Her  total 
length  was  322  feet,  breadth  51,  and  depth  32.  She  could  stow  away 
1200  tons  of  coal ;  the  weight  of  the  engines  was  340,  and  of  the  boilers 
200  tons.  The  engines  were  of  1000  horse-power  ;  they  gave  motion  to 
a  drum  18  feet  in  diameter,  which  communicated  by  means  of  chains 
13 


234  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS, 

weighing  7  tons,  with  another  drum  one-third  of  the  diameter  of  the  first. 
The  latter  drove  a  shaft  130  feet  long,  passing  immediately  above  the 
keel  to  the  screw,  which  had  6  arms  placed  in  a  circle — each  arm  about 
7  feet  long,  and  shaped  somewhat  like  the  bent  tail  of  a  salmon.  The 
screw  weighed  4  tons,  and  wrought  in  a  space  left  immediately  in  front 
of  the  helm.  The  want  of  paddle-boxes,  and  the  consequently  clear  run 
of  the  ship,  gave  her  a  very  handsome  appearance,  and  when  seen  in  the 
graving  dock  at  Liverpool  from  kelson  to  topmast,  the  admiration  of  her 
beautiful  proportions  increased  as  inspection  became  closer.  The  saloons 
and  berths  were  elegantly  fitted  up,  but  not  so  expensively  as  those  of 
the  "Great  Western."  Her  six  masts  (afterwards  reduced  to  five)  could 
spread  as  much  canvas  (5000  yards)  as  a  fifty-two  gun  frigate  ;  but  as 
the  masts  were  all  low,  instead  of  requiring  a  frigate's  complement  of 
seamen,  the  comparatively  small  number  of  thirty  was  sufficient  to 
manage  the  sails  of  the  "Great  Britain."  Even  as  a  sailing  vessel,  it 
was  expected  that  she  would  go  through  the  water  as  fast  as  a  frigate, 
and  certainly  much  faster  than  any  paddle  steamer  under  sail  only,  as 
the  screw  would  not  impede  the  progress  of  the  ship  to  anything  like  the 
extent  of  paddle-boxes  and  wheels.  Her  entire  cost  was  about  ^100,000. 
All  England  was  proud  of  this  ship  ;  her  sailing  and  steaming  qual- 
ities had  been  tested  with  satisfactory  results,  and  it  was  considered  that 
she  would  for  many  years  be  the  swiftest  and  safest  Atlantic  steamer.  A 
few  voyages  in  1845-46  seemed  to  confirm  this  idea  ;  but  her  successful 
career  was  suddenly  stopped  in  a  most  unaccountable  manner.  Every 
one  knows  that  if  you  sail  from  Liverpool  to  America  you  must  go  around 
either  the  south  or  the  north  of  Ireland.  The  captain  of  the  "Great 
Britain,"  on  her  last  outward  voyage,  intended  to  go  around  by  the  north 
passage.  On  his  way  he  must  pass  the  Isle  of  Man,  but  through  some 
blundering  it  was  passed  without  being  perceived,  the  Irish  coast  taken 
for  it,  and  the  poor  "  Great  Britain  "  consequently  went  ashore. 

ORIGIN   OF  THE  CUNARD  LINE. 

But  now  we  turn  to  a  brighter  page  in  the  history  of  the  bold  adven- 
turers on  this  Atlantic  route.  In  November,  1838,  shortly  after  the  suc- 
cessful voyage  of  the  "  Great  Western,"  the  English  Government  adver- 
tised for  tenders  for  carrying  the  mails  in  steamers  between  this  country 
and  America.     Both  the  companies  to  which  these  two  vessels  belonged 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  235 

made  offers  :  the  former  to  t^o  once  a  month  from  Cork  to  HaHfax  for 
^45,000  :  and  for  ^65,000  per  annum  if  New  York  were  included,  the 
vessels  to  be  of  240  horse-power.  The  Great  Western  Company  pro- 
posed to  perform  the  service  to  Halifax  once  a  month,  with  three  vessels 
of  350  horse-power  each,  for  ^45,000  per  annum.  Neither  of  these  ten- 
ders was  accepted  ;  but  shortly  afterwards  a  proposal  was  made  to  the 
English  Government  by  Mr.  Samuel  Cunard,  of  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia. 
This  o-entleman  had  had  for  fifteen  or  twenty  years  previously  a  contract 
for  carrjing  the  mails  between  Halifa.x  and  Bermuda,  for  which  he  received 
^4460  per  annum,  his  vessels  running  twice  each  month  ;  and  he  now 
proposed  to  take  the  Atlantic  contract,  and  carry  the  mails  once  a  week. 
This  proposition  was  not  acceded  to  at  the  time,  but  ultimately  it  was 
arranged  that  he  was  to  receive  ^65,000  per  annum  for  seven  years 
for  conveying  the  mails  twice  each  month  between  Liverpool,  Halifax, 
Quebec  and  Boston.  This  was  the  commencement  of  what  is  now  the 
well-known  Cunard  Line.  In  the  summer  of  1840  a  steamer  named 
the  "Britannia,"  of  1200  tons  burthen,  440  horse-power,  and  230  feet  in 
length  (the  same  dimensions  nearly  as  the  "Great  Western  "),  arrived 
in  the  Mersey  to  commence  the  fulfilment  of  Mr.  Cunard's  contract.  She 
left  Liverpool  on  the  4th  of  July,  arriving  at  Halifax  m  12  days  10 
hours,  and  performing  the  voyage  homeward  from  Halifax  in  10  days. 
The  other  vessels  placed  on  this  line  at  the  outset  were  the  "Arcadia," 
"Columbia,"  and  "Caledonia."  They  were  all  built  in  the  Clyde,  and 
their  dimensions  were  nearly  the  same  as  the  "  Britannia."  More 
powerful  vessels  were  afterwards  constructed,  and  in  consideration 
thereof  the  payment  was  raised  to  ^90,000  per  annum,  subsequently 
reduced  to  ^85,000  when  the  service  to  Quebec  was  taken  off. 

ANTARCTIC   EXPLORATIONS. 

In  1837  the  French  Government  sent  out  an  expedition  under 
Rear-Admiral  D'Urville,  an  eminent  explorer,  who  had  already  made 
three  voyages  around  the  world.  Two  cor\-ettes,  the  "Astrolabe  "  and 
"Zelee,"  sailed  from  Toulon,  and  by  the  end  of  the  year  had  followed 
Weddell's  track  in  the  Antarctic  seas  until  they  were  stopped  by  the 
ice  between  the  63d  and  64th  parallels.  On  three  occasions  an  entrance 
was  forced  into  it,  but  they  were  driven  back  each  time  and  forced  to 
return.     Louis  Philippe's  Land,  however,  was  discovered,  and  some  posi- 


236  STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

tions  of  the  shores  beyond  Brandsfield  Straits  determined.  After  a 
lengthened  cruise  in  Polynesia  and  the  Indian  Archipelago,  D'Urville  re- 
solved to  make  another  attempt  to  get  to  the  south,  and  touched  at 
Hobart  Town  in  a  distressed  condition,  having  lost  three  officers  and 
thirteen  men  by  dysentery.  He  sailed  in  January,  1840,  his  special  aim 
being  to  approach  or  reach  the  magnetic  or  terrestrial  pole.  The 
terrestrial  meridian  from  Hobart  Town  to  the  pole  coincides  in  a  re- 
markable degree  with  the  magnetic  meridian,  and  by  steering  on  the 
former,  D'Urville  hoped  to  arrive  at  both  the  poles  he  was  searching  for 
by  the  same  route.  On  the  21st  he  was  surrounded  by  numerous  ice 
islands,  and  saw  a  lofty  line  of  coast  covered  with  snow,  stretching  from 
south-west  to  north-west,  apparently  without  limit.  With  some  difficulty 
a  landing  was  effected,  and  possession  taken  in  the  name  of  France,  It 
was  called  La  Terre  Adelie,  after  the  wife  of  the  discoverer.  Two  days 
afterwards  the  vessels  were  separated  by  a  terrific  storm  ;  they,  however, 
weathered  through  and  met  again  on  the  28th  in  an  open  sea  toward  the 
north,  from  whence  they  steered  a  south-westerly  course  to  complete  a 
series  of  magnetic  observations,  keeping  a  lookout  for  land  in  that  direc- 
tion. On  this  route  a  ship  was  seen,  which  afterwards  proved  to  be  the 
"Porpoise,"  one  of  the  American  squadron.  The  vessels  passed  with- 
out communicating,  and  in  February,  1840,  D'Urville  returned  to  Hobart 
Town.  The  subsequent  fate  of  this  persevering  navigator  was  truly 
melancholy.  After  having  escaped  all  the  dangers  of  a  sailor's  life  dur- 
ing thirty  years,  he  was  burned  to  death,  with  his  wife  and  son,  in  the 
railway  train  between  Paris  and  Versailles  in  1842. 

WILKES'S   EXPEDITION. 

The  United  States  Exploring  E.xpedition,  the  first  that  ever  left  this 
country  for  a  scientific  purpose,  sailed  in  August,  1838.  It  comprised 
two  sloops  of  war,  the  "Vincennes"  and  the  "Peacock,"  the  brig 
"  Porpoise,"  a  store-ship,  and  two  tenders.  With  respect  to  researches 
in  the  Antarctic  seas.  Lieutenant  Wilkes,  the  commander,  was  instructed 
to  follow,  as  others  had  previously  done,  Weddel's  track,  and  afterwards 
to  explore  as  far  as  Cook's  ne  plus  ultra,  neglecting  no  opportunity  of 
pushing  to  the  south  as  might  be  compatible  with  the  safety  of  the  ves- 
sels. The  "Porpoise"  and  "Seagull,"  tender,  sailed  from  Orange  Har- 
bor, on  the  west  of  Terra  del    Fuego,  in   February,  1839,  ^o''  the  first 


STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS.  237 

southern  cruise,  and  explored  in  the  vicinity  of  the  South  Shetlands. 
The  "  Peacock  "  and  "  Flying  Fish  "  followed,  and  penetrated  as  far  as 
70  degrees,  when  the  approach  of  winter  compelled  their  return.  Off 
Cape  Horn  the  "  Seagull  "  separated  from  her  consort,  and  was  never 
afterwards  heard  of  The  second  cruise  was  made  from  Sydney  with 
four  of  the  ships  ;  they  sailed  December  29th,  two  days  before  D'Urville. 
Lieutenant  Wilkes  chose  the  meridian  of  Macquarie  Island,  designing, 
after  a  long  stretch  to  the  south,  to  turn  westward,  and  beat  around 
the  circle  to  Enderby  Land,  and  make  a  dash  towards  the  pole  when- 
ever practicable.  On  the  i6th  of  January,  in  latitude  66  degrees,  he 
landed  on  what  was  taken  for  an  island,  but  which  subsequent  researches 
gave  reason  to  suppose  was  a  floating  mass  of  ice.  To  make  the  explo- 
ration as  effective  as  possible,  the  ships  separated.  They  were,  how- 
ever, so  ill-adapted  for  navigation  among  ice,  that  although  great  exer- 
tions were  used  to  widen  the  search  one  after  another  they  were  com- 
pelled to  abandon  the  enterprise,  after  having  incurred  extreme  distress 
and  danger.  The  "  Vincennes  "  was  the  last  to  return.  On  the  30th  of 
January,  Lieutenant  Wilkes  entered  a  bay,  which  he  named  Pinar's  Bay, 
in  latitude  66°  45',  and  designated  the  country  as  the  Antarctic  Conti- 
nent. The  accumulations  of  floating  ice  prevented  his  reaching  the 
shore,  and  he  was  then  unaware  that  this  was  the  Adelie  Land  of 
D'Urville.  The  French  admiral  had  landed  there  a  week  previously, 
and  taken  possession.  The  American  squadron  returned  to  the  United 
States  in  June,  1842. 

"  EREBUS  ••  AND  "  TERROR." 

Ne.^t  came  an  important  English  expedition.  Two  vessels  were 
fitted  out,  the  "Erebus,"  of  350  tons,  and  the  "Terror,"  the  latter  hav 
ing  been  repaired  after  returning  from  Back's  hazardous  voyage  to- 
wards Repulse  Bay.  Ross  and  Crozier  were  the  commanders,  with 
sixty-four  persons  in  each  ship.  They  left  Chatham  on  the  i6th  of  Sep- 
tember, 1839,  and  on  the  5th  of  October  were  off  the  Lizard,  the  last 
point  of  England  they  were  to  see  for  several  years. 

After  touching  at  the  Cape  and  landing  a  party  with  materials  and 
instruments  for  the  establishment  of  a  magnetic  observatory,  as  had  pre- 
viously been  done  at  St.  Helena,  the  ships  proceeded  to  Kerguelen's 
Island,  in  approaching  which  they  encountered  the  tempestuous  weather 
so  characteristic  of  high  southerly  latitudes.     They  remained  here  until 


238  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

the  20th  of  July,  pursuing  diligently  their  magnetical,  meteorological, 
eeoloeical,  botanical,  and  other  researches.  Abundance  of  coal  was 
found,  a  fact  which  in  these  days  of  ocean  steam  navigation  may  perhaps 
be  turned  to  good  account.  The  plants  are  much  less  numerous  than  in 
higher  latitudes  in  the  North.  Parry  met  with  sixty-seven  species  at 
Melville  Island,  and  forty-five  have  been  discovered  at  Spitzbergen,  while 
Kerguelen  Island  produces  but  eighteen.  Among  these  there  is  one 
which  deserves  especial  mention — the  Kerguelen  cabbage,  first  noticed 
during  Cook's  stay  on  the  island. 

On  November  12,  1840,  the  summer  season  of  that  side  of  the 
world,  the  vessels,  having  been  fully  refitted,  were  found  to  be  more  efii- 
cient  than  when  they  left  England,  and  the  party  sailed  in  search  of  new 
lands  in  unknown  seas. 

NEW  YEAR'S  AT   MOUNT  SABINE. 

The  good  cheer  of  New  Year's  day  was  not  forgotten,  and  a  suit  of 
warm  clothing  was  served  out  gratis  to  every  one  of  the  crew.  On  the 
5th  they  beat  into  the  main  pack,  and  when  fairly  entered,  found  it  lighter 
and  more  open  than  it  appeared  from  the  outside.  Penguins,  albatrosses, 
petrels  and  seals  crowded  about  the  vessels,  and  followed  them  in  their 
winding  course  among  the  hummocks  and  floes.  They  got  through  the 
pack,  which  was  here  200  miles  wide,  in  four  days,  and  on  the  loth — one 
of  those  singular  phenomena  peculiar  to  the  frozen  latitudes — not  a  par- 
ticle of  ice  could  be  seen  in  any  direction  from  the  masthead.  The  dip 
was  85  degrees,  an  amount  which  marked  their  proximity  to  the  mag- 
netic pole,  to  which  the  ships  were  now  directly  steered.  But  on  the 
next  morning,  land,  with  lofty  mountains,  was  seen  ahead.  One  of  these, 
10,000  feet  high,  was  named  Mount  Sabine,  and  later  in  the  day  the  lati- 
tude was  found  to  be  71°  15',  the  highest  point  reached  by  Cook  in  1774. 

ANTARCTIC   VOLCANOES. 

Early  on  the  28th  the  vessels  stood  towards  the  high  land  seen 
the  day  before.  It  proved  to  be  a  mountain,  12,400  feet  of  elevation 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  emitting  flame  and  smoke  in  great  profusion. 
At  first  the  smoke  appeared  like  snow-drift,  but  on  drawing  nearer  its 
true  character  became  manifest. 

"The  discovery  of  an  active  volcano  in  so  high  a  southern  latitude 
cannot  but  be  esteemed  a  circumstance  of  high   geological  importance 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 


239 


and  interest,  and  contribute  to  throw  some  further  lig^ht  on  the  physical 
construction  of  our  globe.  It  was  named  Mount  Erebus  ;  and  an  e.xtinct 
volcano  to  the  eastward,  little  inferior  in  height,  being  by  measurement 
10,900  feet  high,  was  named  Mount  Terror," 


THE   ICY  BARRIER. 


Later  in  the  same  day  the  latitude  was  found  to  be  76°  6',  and  the 
vessels  were  to  the  southward  of  the  magnetic  pole,  the  approach  to 
which  was  impeded  by  land  ice.  Standing  in  for  the  land  under  all  sail, 
"  a  low,  white  line  was  perceived  extending  from  its  eastern  extreme 
point  as  far  as  the  eye  could  discern  to  the  eastward.  It  presented  an 
extraordinary  appearance,  gradually  increasing  in  height  as  we  got  nearer 
to  it,  and  proving  at  length  to  be  a  perpendicular  cliff  of  ice,  between  150 
and  200  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  perfectly  flat  and  level  at  the  top, 
and  without  any  fissures  or  promontories  on  its  even  seaward  face."  Far 
in  the  rear  a  range  of  mountains  was  seen,  which  were  named  the  Parry 
mountains,  in  honor  ot  the  eminent  Arctic  explorer.  They  are  the  most 
southerly  land  as  yet  known  on  the  globe.  The  sight  of  this  barrier  was 
a  great  disappointment  to  all  on  board,  for  they  had  anticipated  being 
able  to  push  their  researches  far  beyond  the  80th  degree  ;  but,  as  Sir  J. 
Ross  observes,  they  "might,  with  equal  chance  of  success,  try  to  sail 
through  the  cliffs  of  Dover  as  penetrate  such  a  mass."  They  coasted 
along  this  icy  wall  to  the  eastward,  and  on  the  2d  of  February  had  in- 
creased the  latitude  to  78°  4',  the  highest  point  ever  reached.  On  the 
gth  they  stood  closer  in,  to  a  bay,  where  the  cliff  being  low,  enabled  them 
to  look  down  upon  it  from  the  masthead.  "  It  appeared  to  be  quite 
smooth,  and  conveyed  to  the  mind  the  idea  of  an  immense  plain  of 
frosted  silver  ;  gigantic  icicles  depended  from  every  projecting  point  of 
its  perpendicular  face."  Although  in  a  season  answering  to  the  month 
of  August  in  England,  the  temperature  was  not  higher  than  12  degrees, 
and  did  not  rise  above  14  degrees  at  noon  ;  and  so  much  young  ice  was 
formed  during  the  nights  as  to  threaten  a  sudden  stoppage  to  the  explo- 
ration, which,  however,  was  continued  until  the  13th,  in  hopes  of  coming 
to  the  end  of  the  icy  barrier,  or  to  find  some  passage  through  it  to  the 
southward.  But  these  expectations  were  not  to  be  realized.  After  sail- 
ing along  the  frozen  cliff  for  450  miles  the  vessels  bore  up  to  the  west- 
ward, to  make  another  attempt  to  reach  the  magnetic   pole   before  the 


240  STORV    OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

season  finally  closed.  Unlike  the  bergs  of  the  northern  regions,  which 
are  dismembered  by  the  action  of  the  sea,  "this  extraordinary  barrier,  of 
probably  more  than  1000  feet  in  thickness,  crushes  the  undulations  of 
the  waves  and  disregards  their  violence.  It  is  a  mighty  and  wonderful 
object,  far  beyond  anything  we  could  have  thought  or  conceived." 

THE  ATTEMPT   ABANDONED. 

On  the  1 7th  it  became  apparent  that  the  endeavor  was  useless  ;  a 
secure  harbor  was  then  sought  for,  in  which  the  vessels  might  winter, 
and  from  which  parties  could  be  sent  overland  in  the  spring  to  visit  the 
burning  mountain,  whose  frequent  eruptions  afforded  a  magnificent 
spectacle,  and  to  discover  the  great  centre  of  magnetic  attraction.  But 
after  a  hard  struggle  to  reach  an  island  through  sixteen  miles  of  inter- 
vening land  ice,  this  attempt  was  also  abandoned — not  without  much 
regret  on  the  part  of  the  commander,  who  had  indulged  in  the  hope  of 
planting  the  British  flag  on  the  southern  magnetic  pole  as  he  formerly 
had  on  the  northern. 

ORIGIN  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

The  year  1839  must  ever  be  memorable  on  account  of  the  invention 
of  photography.  The  first  attempt  to  produce  a  picture  by  the  aid  of 
the  rays  of  the  sun  was  made  in  1802  by  Thomas  Wedgwood,  son  of  the 
famous  potter.  Sir  Humphrey  Davy  co-labored  with  him.  But  their 
efforts  were  not  successful.  Niepce,  of  Chalons,  in  18 14,  succeeded  in 
making  a  permanent  "  heliograph,"  as  it  was  called,  by  means  of  a  pro- 
cess which  now  forms  the  basis  of  all  photo-engraving.  In  1829  he  asso- 
ciated himself  with  Daguerre,  but  died  in  1833  without  achieving  that 
at  which  he  had  aimed.  Daguerre  continued  the  experiments,  and  in 
1839  brought  to  substantial  perfection  the  process  which  has  ever  since 
been  known  by  his  name.  The  Daguerreotypes  were  pictures  of  rare 
beauty,  but  were  costly,  and  in  time  gave  way  to  later  photographic 
processes. 

1  he  first  photographic  portrait  of  a  human  face  was  made  by 
Daguerre's  process  by  Professor  John  W.  Draper,  of  the  University  of 
the  city  of  New  York,  in  1839.  It  was  made  on  the  roof  of  the  Uni- 
versity building  in  New  York,  and  was  a  portrait  of  his  sister. 

The  calotype  was  perfected  by  Talbot,  in  England,  in  1841,  and  was 
the  first  photographic  process  to  make  a  "negative"  from  which  any 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  24I 

number  of  prints  can  be  made  The  collodion,  or  "wet  plate  "  process, 
came  into  use  in  1851,  and  finally  in  1871  the  modern  gelatine  dry  plate 
was  perfected 

TEMPERANCE  SOCIETIES. 

It  was  during  the  administration  of  President  Van  Buren  that  the 
first  temperance  societies  were  formed  in  the  United  States.  These 
were  known  as  the  Washington  Temperance  Societies.  They  favored 
entire  abstinence  from  alcoholic  liquors,  and  conducted  a  vigorous  propa- 
ganda, largely  by  inducing  converted  or  reformed  drunkards  to  relate 
publicly  their  pi-rsonal  experiences. 

LITERARY   PROGRESS. 

A  noteworthy  incident  of  the  year  1837,  in  the  literary'  world,  was 
the  appearance  of  Carlyle's  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution,"  a 
monumental  work  which  at  once  stamped  its  author  as  one  of  the  fore- 
most historical  writers  and  philosophers  of  the  age,  or,  indeed,  of  any  age. 

In  the  same  year  occurred  the  death  of  Alexander  S.  Pushkin,  whom 
Russians  esteem  to  have  been  their  greatest  poet.  Beside  miscellaneous 
poems  he  wrote  romantic  epics,  a  drama,  and  several  novels.  For 
writing  an  "Ode  to  Liberty"  he  was  dismissed  from  government  service 
and  banished  to  his  country  home  by  the  Czar,  Nicholas  I.  He  was  soon 
restored  to  favor,  however,  and  was  charged  with  writing  for  the  Czar  a 
history  of  Peter  the  Great.      He  was  killed  in  a  duel. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 


William  Henry  Harrison  becomes  President  of  the  United  States — Deatt 

of  Harrison— John  Tyler   becomes   President — Ashburton  Treaty — 

Dorr's   Rebellion — Saving  Oregon  —  Anti-Slavery  Agitation — 

General  Jackson's  Fine — Annexation  of  Texas — Treaty 

with  China — The  Texas  Question — Incidents  of  the 

Administration — End  of  Tyler's  Term.    - 


IN  1 84 1  Mr.  Van  Buren  was  succeeded  as  President  of  the  Uivited 
States  by  William  Henry  Harrison,  who  had  been  somewhat  dis- 
tinguished in  political  life,  but  more  for  his  military  services.  General 
Harrison  was  the  candidate  of  the  Whigs,  and  Mr.  Van  Buren  of  the 
Democrats  ;  and  the  electioneering  contest  was  carried  on  with  an  ex- 
citement and  enthusiasm  never  before  witnessed  in  this  country.  Of  the 
294  electoral  votes  given  for  President,  Harrison  received  234,  and  John 
Tyler  received  the  same  number  of  votes  for  Vice-President.  General 
Harrison  was  inaugurated  on  the  4th  of  March,  and  died  on  the  4th  of 
April,  just  one  month  after  his  inauguration.  He  was  the  first  President 
of  the  United  States  that  died  in  office,  and  his  death  was  greatly 
lamented. 

DEATH  OF  HARRISON, 

It  was  difficult  to  conceive  that  the  recent  august  spectacle  of  his 
introduction  into  the  highest  office  in  the  gift  of  his  countrymen  should 
be  so  nearly  associated  with  his  funeral  honors.  The  loss  seemed  severe, 
in  proportion  to  the  expectations  that  had  been  indulged.  A.  suitable 
commemoration  of  the  distressing  event  was  observed  throughout  the 
United  States  by  public  bodies,  and  especially  by  Christian  worshipping 
assemblies.  Political  opponents,  in  many  instances,  were  not  slow  to 
render  homage  to  the  memory  of  the  deceased  President.  There  had 
been  time  for  no  particular  development  of  principles  or  course  of  policy 
on  the  part  of  the  administration.  The  Cabinet  had  been  formed  and 
things  were  proceeding  prosperously,  and  the  future  was  full  of  promises 
when  this  bereavement  came  to  quench  the  hopes  of  millions. 

242 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  243 

This  brief  notice  of  a  brief  administration  may  be  closed  by  an 
extract  from  the  circular  issued  by  the  members  of  the  Cabinet  imme- 
diately after  the  President's  decease,  and  which  alludes  to  his  dying  as 
well  as  his  liviuLj  example:  "The  people  of  the  United  States,  over- 
whelmed, like  ourselves,  by  an  event  so  unexpected  and  so  melancholy, 
will  derive  consolation  from  knowing  that  his  death  was  calm  and  re- 
signed, as  his  life  had  been  patriotic,  useful  and  distinguished  ;  and  that 
the  last  utterance  of  his  lips  expressed  a  firm  desire  for  the  perpetuity  of 
the  Constitution  and  the  preservation  of  its  true  principles.  In  death,  as 
in  "ife,  the  happiness  of  his  country  was  uppermost  in  his  thoughts." 

JOHN  TYLER  BECOMES  PRESIDENT. 

On  the  death  of  President  Harrison,  John  Tyler,  in  accordance  with 
the  provisions  of  the  Constitution,  became  President.  But  he  refused  to 
carr}'  out  the  principles  of  the  party  by  which  he  was  elected,  nor  did  he 
become  popular  with  any  party. 

On  the  31st  of  May  Congress  met  in  an  extra  session,  which  had 
been  called  by  President  Harrison,  and,  besides  other  acts,  they  repealed 
the  Sub-Treasury  Bill  and  passed  two  different  bills,  establishing  a  fiscal 
bank,  or  fiscal  corporation,  of  the  United  States,  both  of  which  were 
vetoed  by  the  President.  The  establishment  of  such  an  institution  was 
a  favorite  measure  of  the  Whigs,  and  the  action  of  the  President,  in  rela- 
tion to  it,  caused  much  excitement ;  and  all  the  members  of  the  Cabinet 
resigned,  with  the  exception  of  the  Secretarj'  of  State,  Mr.  Webster,  who 
fortunately  retained  office  till  after  the  settlement  of  the  difficulty  with 
England  in  relation  to  the  north-eastern  boundary. 

In  1842  a  new  tariff  law  was  enacted,  which  made  provision  for  the 
public  revenue  and  afforded  protection  to  American  manufacturers  and 
other  branches  of  national  industr)^  and  which  was  a  favorite  measure  of 
the  Whig  party.  This  measure,  as  it  was  maintained  by  its  friends,  had 
a  powerful  influence  in  restoring  a  high  state  of  prosperity  to  the  country; 
but  it  caused  great  dissatisfaction  in  some  parts,  especially  in  the 
Southern  States. 

ASHBURTON  TREATY. 

The  north-eastern  boundary  of  the  United  States,  between  the  State 
of  Maine  and  the  British  Provinces  of  Lower  Canada  and  New  Bruns- 
wick, had  been  for  some  years  a  subject  of  negotiation  and  controversy. 


244  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

and  at  length  it  threatened  to  become  a  subject  of  serious  national  dis- 
pute. The  difficulty,  however,  was  amicably  adjusted  by  the  treaty  of 
Washington,  concluded  in  September,  1842,  by  Lord  Ashburton  and 
Daniel  Webster. 

One  of  the  last  acts  of  Mr.  Tyler's  administration  was  the  annexation 
of  the  Republic  of  Texas  to  the  United  States — a  measure  which  was 
greatly  promoted  by  the  exertions  of  John  C.  Calhoun,  the  Secretary 
of  State,  and  which  excited  a  spirited  controversy.  Joint  resolutions  for 
the  annexation  of  that  republic  to  the  United  States,  as  one  of  the  States 
of  the  Union,  passed  the  House  of  Representatives  on  the  25th  of 
January,  1845,  by  a  vote  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  to  ninety-eight;  and 
the  Senate,  on  the  ist  of  March,  by  a  vote  of  twenty-seven  to  twenty-five; 
and  on  the  same  day  they  were  approved  by  the  President. 

DORR'S  REBELLION. 

The  administration  of  Mr.  Tyler  was  marked  with  a  curious  attempt 
at  civil  war  in  New  England,  known  as  Dorr's  Rebellion.  It  occurred  in 
Rhode  Island.  The  old  charter  of  1662  was  still  in  force  in  that  State, 
and  the  right  of  suffrage  was  restricted  to  a  small  proportion  of  the 
people. 

A  new  Constitution  was  adopted  in  1841  by  a  general  popular 
convention,  and  under  it  a  new  Governor,  Mr.  Dorr,  was  elected.  The 
old  government  of  the  State  refused  to  recognize  the  legality  of  the  new 
Constitution  or  Governor  Dorr's  title  to  his  office.  Accordingly  a  new 
Constitution,  adopted  by  more  regular  methods,  was  framed  in  1843.  In 
the  meantime  Governor  Dorr  seized  the  State  arsenal  and  attempted  to 
maintain  himself  in  office  by  force.  He  was  finally  seized  and  convicted 
of  treason,  but  was  pardoned. 

A  similar  trouble  arose  in  New  York  State  through  the  refusal  of 
some  tenants  of  the  old  Dutch  patroon  estates  to  pay  their  legal  rent. 
This  rent  was  really  no  hardship.  It  amounted  to  nothing  more  than  the 
payment  of  one  day's  work  in  a  year,  and  perhaps  a  barrel  of  flour  and 
three  or  four  fowls.  It  was,  however,  a  clear  relic  of  the  feudal  customs 
of  the  dark  ages  in  Europe,  and  was  accordingly  unpopular  in  this  demo- 
cratic country.  There  were  some  riots  and  other  breaches  of  the  peace, 
but  these  came  to  an  end  in  1846  with  the  abolition  of  the  rent 
system. 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 


245 


SAVING  OREGON. 

The  ownership  of  the  country  bordering  on  the  Pacific  Ocean  be- 
tween CaHfornia,  which  belonged  to  Mexico,  and  Alaska,  which  belonged 
to  Russia,  became  a  source  of  controversy  between  the  United  States 
and  Great  Britain.  Both  laid  claim  to  it,  and  since  181 8  it  had  been  re- 
garded as  a  sort  of  neutral  ground,  under  the  joint  control  of  both.  By 
the  year  1842,  however,  it  began  to  be  regarded  by  each  with  special 
interest.  Many  settlers  from  the  United  States  went  together  and 
founded  a  pleasant  and  fertile  country.  Both  governments  soon  began 
to  claim  the  whole  of  it,  and  Great  Britain  would  probably  have  suc- 
ceeded in  securing  possession  of  it  had  it  not  been  for  the  enterprise  of 
a  missionary  from  the  United  States,  the  Rev.  Dr.  Whitman,  who,  amid 
great  perils  and  with  great  labor,  crossed  the  continent  and  laid  before 
the  United  States  government  the  urgency  of  the  situation.  The  result 
was  prompt  action  and  earnest  enforcement  of  the  American  claim.  At 
first  the  United  States  claimed  the  entire  Territory  up  to  the  parallel  of 
54°  40"  north  latitude,  the  southern  boundary  of  Alaska.  A  popular 
political  war-cry  of  the  day  was  ''fifty-four  forty  or  fight." 

ANTI-SLAVERY  AGITATION. 

The  slavery  controversy,  of  which  mention  has  already  been  made, 
steadily  became  more  and  more  acute.  Arkansas  was  admitted  as  a 
slave  State  in  1836,  and  in  1837  Michigan  was  taken  in  as  a  free  State  to 
counterbalance  it.  There  was  thus  no  more  Territory  left  in  the  South 
for  the  creation  of  additional  slave  States,  while  north  of  the  line  estab- 
lished by  the  Missouri  Compromise  there  was  room  for  a  dozen  more  free 
States.  Thus  the  fear  arose  in  the  South  that  the  preponderance  of 
power  would  soon  be  with  the  free  States  of  the  North.  This  fear  was 
intensified  by  the  rise  of  a  definite  anti-slavery  movement  in  New  Eng- 
land and  elsewhere  in  the  North  ;  the  famous  Anti-slavery  Society  was 
organized.  The  leader  of  the  abolitionists  was  William,  Lloyd  Garrison, 
a  printer  and  editor.  Associated  with  him  were  Wendell  Phillips  and 
Theodore  Parker,  two  of  the  most  powerful  orators  of  the  day.  In  Con- 
gress itself  the  controversy  was  vigorously  carried  on  by  ex-President 
John  Quincy  Adams,  by  Joshua  Giddings,  of  Ohio,  and  others,  and  every 
year  made  it  more  evident  that  there  was  an  "impending  conflict"  upon 
this  subject. 


246  STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

GENERAL  JACKSON'S  FINE. 

On  January  8,  1844,  an  act  passed  Congress  refunding  a  fine  which 
had  been  imposed  upon  General  Jackson  at  the  time  of  the  attack  upon 
New  Orleans  in  the  late  war  with  England.  The  re-payment  of  this  fine 
had  been  recommended  by  the  President  as  early  as  1842,  but  the 
measure  had  been  till  now  strongly  and  successfully  resisted.  It  had 
been  imposed  on  the  General  by  Judge  Hall  for  his  refusal,  while  com- 
manding the  army  at  New  Orleans,  to  obey  a  summons  to  appear  before 
the  Court  and  answer  for  his  disobedience  of  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus. 
The  fine  was  ^1000.  The  amount  now  refunded — fine  and  interest — 
was  ^2700  ;  but  the  act  disclaimed  any  reflection  upon  Judge  Hall. 

ANNEXATION  OF  TEXAS. 

In  April  Congress  was  informed  by  a  special  message  from  the 
President  that  a  treaty  had  been  negotiated  with  Texas,  by  which  she 
was  annexed  as  a  Territory  to  the  United  States.  This  annunciation 
excited  no  small  surprise  throughout  the  country,  and  awakened  great 
solicitude  in  the  minds  of  those  who  were  opposed  to  the  measure  ;  as, 
in  their  view,  it  involved  an  extension  of  slavery  and  a  probable  rupture 
with  Mexico,  which  power  laid  claim  to  the  republic  as  a  part  of  her 
rightful  domain.  The  treaty,  however,  was  rejected  by  the  Senate,  and 
the  object  of  the  President  for  the  present  failed. 

TREATY  WITH   CHINA, 

During  the  second  session  of  the  Twenty-eighth  Congress,  an  im- 
portant treaty  between  the  United  States  and  the  Chinese  Empire  was 
ratified  by  an  unanimous  vote  of  the  Senate.  This  treaty  was  concluded 
by  Caleb  Cushing  and  Tsiyeng  on  the  3d  of  July,  1844,  and  by  it  our 
relations  with  China  were  placed  on  a  new  footing,  eminently  favorable 
to  the  commerce  and  other  interests  of  the  United  States. 

THE  TEXAS  QUESTION. 

The  rejection  of  the  treaty  with  Texas  by  the  Senate,  instead  of 
cooling,  increased  the  ardor  of  President  Tyler  to  accomplish  his  plan 
of  annexation.  According  to  his  wishes,  and  probably  at  his  suggestion, 
at  the  following  session  of  Congress  a  joint  resolution  for  her  annexation 
was  introduced  into  Congress,  and  passed  the  House  of  Representatives, 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  247 

January  23d,  by  a  vote  of  one  hundred  and  eighteen  to  one  hundred  and 
one.  In  the  Senate  the  resolution  underwent  several  important  amend- 
ments, particularly  one  by  Mr.  Walker,  involving  the  alternative  of 
negotiation  at  the  option  of  the  President,  which,  having  been  concurred 
in  by  the  House,  received  the  sanction  of  the  executive,  and  thus  the 
way  was  prepared  for  the  annexation  of  the  country  in  question. 

"As  these  measures,  in  regard  to  the  admission  of  Texas,  were 
adopted  at  the  close  of  the  session  of  Congress,  it  was  expected  that  Mr. 
Tyler  would  leave  it  to  his  successor  to  consummate  the  wishes  of  Con- 
gress, and  it  was  also  understood  that  Mr.  Polk  had  determined  to  ne- 
gotiate a  treaty  with  Texas  under  the  alternative  offered  by  Mr.  Walker's 
amendment.  President  Tyler,  however,  determined  to  forestall  the 
action  of  his  successor,  and  hence  dispatched  an  express  to  communicate 
to  Texas  that  he  had  decided  to  invite  Texas  into  the  Union  under  the 
provisions  of  the  resolutions  as  they  passed  the  House  of  Represen- 
tatives, without  the  exercise  of  further  treaty-making  power." 

INCIDENTS  OF  THE  ADMINISTRATION. 

We  may  note  briefly,  in  passing,  that  during  Mr.  Tyler's  adminis- 
tration the  "gag  rule"  against  the  right  of  petition  in  Congress  was 
rescinded,  the  Seminole  wars  were  finally  ended,  the  national  election 
day  for  Presidential  electors  was  fixed  on  the  Tuesday  after  the  first 
Monday  in  November  of  each  fourth  year,  and  Florida  was  admitted  to 
the  Union  as  a  State. 

END  OF  TYLER'S  TERM. 

Mr.  Tyler's  Presidential  term  expired  on  the  4th  of  March,  1845,  ^^^ 
he  was  not  elected,  nor  indeed  was  he  a  candidate  for  re-election,  except 
for  a  short  period.  The  candidates  of  the  two  great  political  parties  were 
Henry  Clay,  of  Kentucky,  and  James  K.  Polk,  of  Tennessee.  These  had 
been  nominated  by  the  respective  conventions  of  the  parties,  which  had 
assembled  in  the  city  of  Baltimore  ;  one  on  the  ist  and  the  other  on  the 
17th  of  May,  1844.  The  campaign  was  a  spirited  one,  and  the  friends 
of  the  rival  candidates  used  every  effort  to  secure  their  election.  On  the 
votes  being  counted,  in  the  presence  of  both  Houses  of  Congress,  Feb- 
ruary 1 2th,  it  was  officially  declared  that  Mr.  Polk  was  elected. 


CHAPTER  XX. 


Mehemet   AH   Ruler   of    Egypt — Disasters  in   Afghanistan — Hastening  to 

the   Rescue  —  Fall    of    Ghuznee  —  Capture   of    Cabul  —  Release   of 

Captives  —  Conquest   of  Scinde — The   Bogue   Forts  —  Fall  of 

Canton — Capture    of    Amoy  —  Capture    of    Shanghai — 

Treaty  Signed  at  Nankin — Annexation  of  Natal — 

O'Connell's    Agitation  —  British    Interests — 

Two  Revolutions. 


IN  a  preceding  chapter  we  have  told  of  the  ambitious  enterprises  of 
Mehemet  AH  and  his  son  Ibrahim,  which  were  checked  by  European 
intervention  in  Syria.  Mehemet  was,  however,  confirmed  in  his 
sovereignty  over  Egypt,  and  he  devoted  himself  thereafter  to  the 
extension  of  his  power  and  dominions  in  that  part  of  the  world.  In  the 
same  year,  1841,  Louis  Philippe,  sought  to  strengthen  his  hold  upon  the 
French  throne  by  beginning  the  construction  of  that  vast  circle  of  fortifi- 
cations around  the  city  of  Paris,  which  became  one  of  the  wonders  of  the 
world.  Thus  he  gave  employment  to  thousands  who  otherwise  might 
have  been  idle  and  discontented,  and  he  made  a  strong  appeal  to  the 
military  spirit  which  was  still  so  potent  in  the  French  nation. 

DISASTERS  IN  ArCHANISTAN. 

The  year  1841  came  to  a  close  with  British  disasters  in  Afghanistan. 
In  consequence  of  reductions  having  been  made  in  the  tribute  paid  to  the 
eastern  Ghilzai  tribes  for  keeping  open  the  passes  between  Cabul  and 
Jellalabad,  in  Afghanistan,  the  people  rose  and  took  possession  of  these 
passes.  General  Sir  R.  Sale's  brigade  was,  therefore,  directed  to  re-open 
communication.  The  brigade  fought  its  way  to  Gundamuck,  greatly 
harassed  by  the  enemy  from  the  high  ground,  and  after  eighteen  days' 
incessant  fighting,  reached  that  place,  much  exhausted  ;  they  then  moved 
upon  Jellalabad.  Meantime  an  insurrection  broke  out  at  Cabul.  Sir  A. 
Burnes  and  his  brother.  Lieutenant  C.  Burnes,  Lieutenant  Broadfoot  and 
Lieutenant  Stuart,  were  massacred.      The  whole  city  then  rose   up   in 

248 


w 
z 

M 
73 
> 

•Si 

o 

c 

H 
-i 


r, 
y. 

>< 

O 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  05  I 

arms  and  universal  plunder  ensued,  while  another  large  party  attacked 
the  British  cantonments  about  two  miles  from  the  town.  These  outrages, 
unfortunately,  were  but  the  prelude  to  others  far  more  frightful.  Akhbar 
Khan,  the  son  of  Dost  Mahommed,  on  pretence  of  making  arrangements 
with  SirW.  M'Naughten,  the  British  Envoy  at  the  Court  of  Shah  Soojah, 
invited  him  to  a  conference  ;  he  went  accompanied  by  four  officers  and  a 
small  escort,  when  the  treacherous  Afghan,  after  abusing  the  British 
Ambassador,  drew  a  pistol  and  shot  him  dead  on  the  spot.  Captain 
Trevor,  of  the  3d  Bengal  Cavalry,  on  rushing  to  his  assistance,  was  cut 
down  ;  three  other  officers  were  made  prisoners,  and  the  mutilated  body 
of  the  Ambassador  was  then  barbarously  paraded  through  the  town.  It 
was  also  stated  that  some  severe  fighting  had  taken  place,  but  under  the 
greatest  disadvantage  to  the  British  and  nativ^e  troops,  and  that  the  army 
in  Cabul  had  been  almost  literally  annihilated.  A  capitulation  was  then 
entered  into,  by  which  the  remainder  of  the  Anglo-Indian  army  retired 
from  the  town,  leaving  all  the  sick,  wounded,  and  sixteen  ladies,  wives  of 
officers,  behind.  They  had  not,  however,  proceeded,  far  before  they  were 
assailed  from  the  mountains  by  an  immense  force,  when  the  native  troops. 
having  fought  three  days  and  wading  through  deep  snow,  gave  way,  and 
nearly  the  whole  were  massacred. 

HASTENING  TO  THE  RESCUE. 

So  terrible  a  disaster  had  never  visited  the  British  arms  since  India 
first  acknowledged  the  supremacy  of  England.  A  fatal  mistake  had  been 
committed  by  the  former  Government,  and  it  was  feared  that  all  the 
energy  of  the  new  Ministry  would  be  insufficient  to  maintain  that  degree 
of  influence  over  the  vast  and  thickly  peopled  provinces  of  India,  which 
was  necessary  to  ensure  the  safety  of  British  possessions.  The  Governor- 
General,  Lord  Auckland,  was  recalled,  and  his  place  supplied  by  Lord 
EUenborough,  whose  reputation  for  a  correct  knowledge  of  Indian  afTairs 
was  undisputed.  His  lordship  arrived  at  Calcutta  on  FebrLiary  2Sth,  at 
which  time  Sir  Robert  Sale  was  safe  at  Jellalabad  ;  but  he  was  most 
critically  situated.  The  garrison,  however  maintained  their  post  with 
great  gallantry,  and  were  able  to  defy  the  utmost  efforts  of  the  Afghans, 
having  in  one  instance  sallied  forth  and  attacked  their  camp  of  6000  men, 
and  gained  a  signal  victory.  At  length  General  Pollock  effected  a  junc- 
tion with  the  troops  of  Sir  R.  Sale,  and  released  them  from  a  siege  of  one 
'4 


252  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

hundred  and  fifty-four  days'  duration  ;  having  previously  forced,  with  very 
little  loss,  the  dreaded  pass  of  the  Khyber,  twenty-eight  miles  in  length. 
General  Nott,  also,  who  advanced  from  Candahar  to  meet  General  Eng- 
land, who  had  sustained  considerable  loss  at  the  pass  of  Kojuck,  encoun- 
tered a  large  force  of  Afghans,  and  completely  defeated  them.  But,  on 
the  other  hand,  Colonel  Palmer  surrendered  the  celebrated  fortress  of 
Ghuznec  on  condition  that  the  garrison  should  be  safely  conducted  to 
Cabul. 

TALL  OF  GHUZNEE. 

The  day  of  retribution  was  at  hand.  General  Nott,  at  the  head  of 
7000  men,  having  left  Candahar  on  the  loth  of  August,  proceeded 
towards  Ghuznee  and  Cabul,  while  General  Eno-land,  with  the  remainder 
of  the  troops  lately  stationed  at  Candahar,  marched  back  in  safety  to 
Quetta.  On  the  30tn  of  August  Shah  Shoodeen,  the  Governor  of 
Ghuznee,  Avith  nearly  the  whole  of  his  army,  amounting  to  not  less  than 
I  2,000  men,  arrived  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  British  camp,  and  General 
Nott  prepared  to  meet  him  with  one-half  of  his  force.  The  enemy  came 
boldly  forward,  each  division  cheering  as  they  came  into  position,  and 
occupying  their  ground  in  excellent  style  ;  but  after  a  short  and  spirited 
contest  they  were  completely  defeated,  and  dispersed  in  every  direction, 
their  guns,  tents,  ammunition,  etc.,  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  English. 
On  the  5th  of  September  General  Nott  invested  the  city  of  Ghuznee, 
which  was  strongly  garrisoned,  while  the  hills  to  the  north  eastward 
swarmed  with  soldiery  ;  but  they  soon  abandoned  the  place,  and  the 
British  flags  were  hoisted  in  triumph  on  the  Bala  Hissar.  The  citadel  of 
Ghuznee  and  other  formidable  works  and  defences  were  razed  to  the 
ground. 

CAPTURE  OF  CABUL. 

Early  in  September  General  Pollock  marched  from  Gundamuck  on 
his  way  to  Cabul.  On  reaching  the  hills  which  commanded  the  road 
through  the  pass  of  Jugdulluck  the  enemy  was  found  strongly  posted  and 
in  considerable  numbers.  In  this  action  most  of  the  influential  Afghan 
Chiefs  were  engaged,  and  their  troops  manfully  maintained  their  position  ; 
but  at  length  the  heights  were  stormed,  and,  after  much  arduous  exer- 
tion, they  were  dislodged  and  dispersed.  General  Pollock  proceeded 
onwards,  and  does  not  appear  to  have  encountered  any  further  opposition 
until  his  arrival,  September  13th,  in  the  Tehzear  Valley,  where  an  army 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  253 

of  16,000  men,  commanded  by  Akhbar  Khan  in  person,  was  assembled 
to  meet  him.  A  desperate  fight  ensued  ;  the  enemy  was  completely 
defeated  and  driven  from  the  field.  On  the  day  following  this  engage- 
ment the  General  advanced  to  Boodkhak,  and  on  the  i6th  he  made  his 
triumphal  entry  into  the  citadel,  and  planted  the  British  colors  on  its 
walls.  "Thus,"  said  Lord  Ellenborough,  in  his  general  orders,  "have 
all  past  disasters  been  retrieved  and  avenged  on  every  scene  on  which 
they  were  sustained,  and  repeated  victories  in  the  field,  and  the  capture 
of  the  citadels  of  Ghuznee  and  Cabul  have  advanced  the  glor}'  and 
established  the  accustomed  superiority  of  the  British  arms." 

RELEASE  OF  CAPTIVES, 

At  length  the  long  and  anxiously  desired  liberation  of  the  whole  of 
the  British  prisoners  in  the  hands  of  the  Afghans  was  effected.  Their 
number  was  31  officers,  9  ladies  and  12  children,  with  51  European 
soldiers,  2  clerks  and  4  women,  making  in  all  109  persons,  who  had 
suffered  captivity  from  January  loth  to  September  27th.  It  appeared 
.hat,  by  direction  of  Akhbar  Khan,  the  prisoners  had  been  taken  to 
Bamecan,  90  miles  to  the  westward,  and  that  they  were  destined  to  be 
distributed  among  the  Toor+:istan  chiefs.  General  Pollock  and  some  other 
officers  proposed  to  the  Afghan  chief  that  if  he  would  send  them  back 
to  Cabul  they  would  give  him  ^2000  at  once,  and  £1200  a  year  for 
life.  The  chief  complied,  and  on  the  second  day  they  were  met  by 
Sir  Richard  Shakspear,  with  610  Kuzzilbashes,  and  shortly  afterwards 
by  General  Sale,  with  2000  cavalry  and  infantry,  when  they  returned 
to  Cabul.  Besides  the  Europeans,  there  were  327  Sepoys  found  at 
Ghuznee,  and  1200  sick  and  wounded  who  were  beg-orinor  about  Cabul. 
On  the  arrival  of  General  Nott's  division,  the  resolution  adopted  by 
the  British  Government  to  destroy  all  the  Afghan  strongholds  was  carried 
into  execution,  though  not  without  resistance,  pardcularly  at  the  town 
and  fort  of  Istaliff,  where  a  strong  body  of  Afghans,  led  on  by  Ameer 
Oola,  and  sixteen  of  their  most  determined  chiefs,  had  posted  them- 
selves. This  town  consisted  of  masses  of  houses  built  on  the  slope  of 
a  mountain,  in  the  rear  of  which  were  lofty  eminences,  shutting  in  a  de- 
file to  Toorkistan.  The  number  of  its  inhabitants  exceeded  15,000,  who, 
from  their  defences  and  difficulties  of  approach,  considered  their  position 
unassailable.     The  greater  par:  of  the  plunder  seized  from   the  British 


2  54  STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

was  placed  there  ;  the  chiefs  kept  their  wives  and  families  in  it,  and 
many  of  those  who  had  escaped  from  Cabul  had  sought  refuge  there.  Its 
capture,  was  a  work  of  no  very  great  difficulty,  the  British  troops  driv- 
ino-  the  enemy  before  them  with  considerable  slaughter.  The  Anglo- 
Indian  troops  soon  afterwards  commenced  their  homeward  march  in 
three  divisions :  the  first  under  General  Pollock,  the  second  under 
General  McCaskill,  and  the  third  under  General  Nott.  The  first  division 
effected  their  march  through  the  passes  without  loss,  but  the  second  was 
less  successful,  the  mountaineers  attacking  it  near  Ali-Musjid,  and  plun- 
dering it  as  part  of  the  baggage.  General  Nott  with  his  division  arrived 
in  safety,  bearing  with  them  the  celebrated  gates  of  Somnauth;  which  it 
is  said  a  Mohammedan  conqueror  had  taken  away  from  an  Indian  temple, 
and  which  for  eieht  centuries  formed  the  chief  ornament  of  his  tomb 
at  Ghuznee. 

CONQUEST  OF  SCINDE. 

When  the  e.xpedition  to  Afghanistan  was  first  undertaken,  it  was  in- 
tended to  open  the  Indus  for  the  transit  of  British  merchandise  and 
render  it  one  of  the  great  highways  to  Asia.  The  object  was  not  lost 
sight  of,  though  Afghanistan  had  been  abandoned,  and  endeavors  were 
made  to  obtain  from  the  Ameers  of  Scinde  such  a  treaty  as  would  secure 
the  safe  navigation  of  that  river.  In  December  Major  Outram  was  dis- 
patched to  Hyderabad  to  conclude  the  best  terms  in  his  power  with  the 
native  chiefs.  Not  being  in  a  condition  immediately  to  refuse  to  give  up 
for  the  use  of  navigation  certain  strips  of  land  lying  along  the  river,  they 
temporized  until  at  length  their  troops  were  collected,  when,  on  the  14th 
of  February,  they  sent  word  to  Major  Outram  to  retire  from  their  city. 
The  Major,  not  supposing  they  would  proceed  to  extremities,  delayed. 
The  next  day  the  residence  of  the  British  political  agent  was  attacked. 
It  was  gallandy  defended  by  100  men  for  several  hours  ;  but,  at  length, 
their  ammunition  having  been  expended,  the  British  soldiers  retired,  with 
a  small  loss,  to  the  steamers,  and  proceeded  to  join  Sir  C.  J.  Napier, 
then  at  the  head  of  about  2700  men,  at  a  distance  of  about  twenty  miles 
from  the  capital  of  the  Ameers.  The  latter  hastened,  at  the  head  of 
22,000  men,  to  attack  the  British  force.  On  the  17th  a  batde  took  place 
in  which,  after  a  severe  struggle  of  three  hours,  the  Ameers  were  totally 
routed,  although  they  outnumbered  the  Britisli  force  by  seven  to  one. 
The  Ameers  on  the   following  day  surrendered  themselves  prisoners  of 


2 


7: 
C 

r 
c 

c 
z 

I 


> 
r. 


2 

C 

H 

K 


c 

2 


1850— AMERICAN   FASHIONS 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  257 

war,  and  Hyderabad  was  occupied  by  the  conquerors.  Treasure  and 
jewels  were  found  to  an  amount  considerably  exceeding  ^1,000,000. 
In  consequence  of  this  success,  the  territories  of  Scinde,  with  the  e.xcep- 
tion  of  that  portion  belonging  to  Meer  Ali,  the  Morad  of  Khyrpore,  was 
then  declared  by  the  Governor-General  to  be  a  British  province,  and  Sir 
Charles  J.  Napier  was  appomted  governor. 

The  new  governor,  however,  was  not  to  remain  in  undisturbed  pos- 
session for  any  length  of  time.  An  army  of  Beloochees,  20,000  strong, 
under  the  command  of  Meer  Shere  Mahmoud,  had  taken  up  a  stroncr 
position  on  the  river  FuUalie,  near  the  spot  where  the  Ameers  of  Scinde 
were  so  signally  defeated,  and  Sir  C.  J.  Napier,  on  ascertaining  the  fact, 
resolved  to  attack  them  forthwith.  On  the  24th  of  March  he  moved 
from  Hyderabad  at  the  head  of  5000  men.  The  battle  lasted  for  three 
hours,  when  victory  was  declared  for  the  British.  Eleven  guns  and  nine- 
teen standards  were  taken,  and  about  1000  of  the  enemy  was  killed  and  ^ 
4.000  wounded,  the  loss  of  the  British  amounting  to  only  30  killed  and 
231  wounded.  By  this  victory  the  fate  of  Scinde  and  Beloochistan  was 
'Sealed,  and  the  whole  territory  finally  annexed  to  the  Ano-lo-Indian 
Empire. 

THE  BOGUE  FORTS. 

At  the  commencement  of  1S41  news  was  brought  from  China  that 
ihe  differences  which  had  existed  were  in  a  fair  way  of  settlement,  and 
that  the  war  might  be  considered  as  at  an  end.  Hostilities  had,  however, 
recommenced  in  consequence  of  Keshen,  the  Imperial  Commissioner, 
having  delayed  to  bring  to  a  conclusion  the  negotiations  entered  into 
with  Captain  Elliot.  Preparations  were  accordingly  made  for  attacking 
the  outposts  of  the  Bogue  forts  on  the  Bocca  Tigris.  Having  obtained 
possession  the  steamers  were  sent  to  destroy  the  warjunks  in  Anson's 
Bay  ;  but  the  shallowness  of  the  water  admitted  only  the  approach  of  the 
"Nemesis,"  towing  ten  or  twelve  boats.  The  junks  endeavored  to 
escape,  but  a  rocket  blew  up  the  powder  magazine  of  one  of  them,  and 
eighteen  more,  which  were  set  on  fire  by  the  English  boats'  crews,  also 
successively  blew  up.  At  length  a  flag  of  truce  was  dispatched  by  the 
Chinese  commander,  and  hostilities  ceased.  On  the  20th  of  January 
Captain  Elliot  announced  to  Her  Majesty's  subjects  in  China  that  the 
following  arrangements  had  been  made:  i.  The  cession  of  the  island 
and  harbor  of  Hong  Kong  to  the  British  Crown.      2.  An  indemnity  to  the 


258  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

British  Government  of  $6,000,000  ;  $1,000,000  payable  at  once,  and  the 
remainder  in  equal  annual  installments,  ending  in  1846.  3.  Direct 
official  intercourse  between  the  two  countries  upon  an  equal  footing. 
4.  The  trade  of  the  port  of  Canton  to  be  opened  within  ten  days  after 
the  Chinese  New  Year. 

Thus  far  all  appeared  as  it  should  be  ;  but  great  doubts  of  the 
sincerity  of  Keshen,  the  Chinese  Commissioner,  were  felt  both  in  Eng- 
land and  at  Canton.  Accordingly  the  "Nemesis"  steamer  was  sent  up 
the  river  to  reconnoitre,  and  on  nearing  the  Bogue  forts  (thirty  in 
number),  it  was  discovered  that  preparations  for  defence  had  been  made; 
batteries  and  field-works  had  been  thrown  up  along  the  shore,  and  upon 
the  islands  in  the  middle  of  the  river  a  barrier  was  in  course  of  construc- 
tion across  the  channel,  and  there  were  large  bodies  of  troops  assembled 
from  the  interior.  Keshen  finding  his  duplicity  discovered,  communicated 
that  further  negotiations  would  be  declined.  The  Emperor,  it  appeared, 
had  issued  edicts  repudiating  the  treaty  and  denouncing  the  English 
barbarians,  "who  were  like  dogs  and  sheep  in  their  dispositions."  That 
in  sleeping  or  eating  he  found  no  quiet,  and  he  therefore  ordered  8000 
of  his  best  troops  to  defend  Canton,  and  to  recover  the  places  on  the 
coast;  for  it  was  absolutely  necessary  (said  the  Emperor)  "that  the 
rebellious  foreigners  must  give  up  their  heads,  which,  with  the  prisoners, 
were  to  be  sent  to  Pekin  in  cages,  to  undergo  the  last  penalty  of  the 
law."  He  also  offered  $50,000  for  the  apprehension  of  Elliot,  Morison 
or  Berner  alive,  or  $30,000  for  either  of  their  heads.  In  addition,  $5000 
for  an  officer's  head,  $500  for  an  Englishman  alive,  $300  for  a  head,  and 
$100  for  a  Sepoy  alive.  The  Emperor  also  delivered  Keshen  in  irons 
over  to  the  board  of  punishment  at  Pekin,  and  divested  the  Admiral  Kwan 
Teenpei  of  his  button.  Before  the  hostile  edicts  had  appeared  Captain 
Elliot,  confiding  on  the  good  faith  of  Keshen,  had  sent  orders  to  General 
Burrel  to  restore  the  island  of  Chusan  (which  the  English  had  taken 
many  months  before)  to  the  Chinese,  and  to  return  with  the  Bengal 
Volunteers  to  Calcutta.  This  order  had  been  prompdy  obeyed,  Chusan 
having  been  evacuated  February  29th. 

FALL  OF  CANTON. 

Captain  Elliot  set  sail  on  February  20th  up  the  Canton  River  On 
the  24th  he  destroyed  a  masked  field-work,  disabling  eighty  cannon  there 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  259 

mounted.  On  the  25th  and  26th  he  took  three  adjoinintj  Bogue  forts 
without  losing  a  man,  killing  about  250  Chinese  and  taking  1300 
prisoners.  The  subsequent  operations  of  the  squadron  presented  one 
unbroken  succession  of  brilliant  achievements,  until,  on  the  28th  of 
March,  Canton,  the  second  city  in  the  Chinese  Empire,  containing  a 
million  of  souls,  was  placed  at  the  mercy  of  the  British  troops.  After 
some  sharp  fighting  the  Canton  Governor  yielded,  and  the  troops  and 
ships  were  withdrawn  on  condition  of  the  three  commissioners  and  all 
the  troops  under  them  leaving  Canton  and  its  vicinity,  and  $6,000,000 
to  be  paid  within  a  week,  the  first  million  before  evening  of  that  day ;  if 
the  whole  was  not  paid  before  the  end  of  the  week  the  ransom  was  to 
be  raised  to  $7,000,000 ;  if  not  before  the  end  of  fourteen  days,  to 
$8,000,000  ;  and  if  not  before  twenty  days,  to  $9,000,000.  After  three 
days,  the  conditions  having  been  fulfilled,  the  troops  left  for  Hong  Kong, 
having  had  thirteen  men  killed  and  ninety-seven  wounded. 

CAPTURE  OF  AMOY. 

Sir  Henry  Pottinger,  the  new  Plenipotentiary',  and  Rear-Admiral 
Parker,  the  new  Naval  Commander-in-Chief,  arrived  at  Macao  on  the 
9th  of  August.  A  notification  of  Sir  Henry's  presence  and  powers  was 
sent  to  Canton  immediately  on  his  arrival,  accompanied  by  a  letter  for- 
warded to  the  Emperor  at  Pekin,  the  answer  to  which  was  required  to  be 
sent  to  a  northern  station.  The  fleet,  consisting  of  nine  ships  of  war, 
four  armed  steamers  and  twenty-two  transports,  sailed  for  the  island  and 
city  of  Amoy  on  the  21st  of  August.  The  Chinese  made  an  animated 
defence  for  four  hours,  and  then  fled  from  all  their  fortifications,  and  also 
from  the  city,  carrying  with  them  their  treasures.  The  Chinese  junks 
and  war-boats  were  all  captured  ;  and  the  cannon,  with  immense  muni- 
tions of  war,  of  course  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  English.  Not  a  single 
man  of  the  British  was  killed,  and  only  nine  were  wounded.  The  next 
day  Sir  Hugh  Gough  entered  the  city  at  the  head  of  his  troops  without 

opposition. 

CAPTURE  OF  SHANGHAI. 

After  an  arrival  of  reinforcements  the  British  exposition,  on  June 
13th,  entered  the  Yang-tse-Kiang,  on  the  banks  of  which  were  immense 
fortifications.  The  fleet  at  daylight  having  taken  their  stations,  the 
batteries   opened  a  fire    which    lasted    two    hours.       The  seamen    and 


26o  STOkY    OF   ONIi    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

marines  then  landed,  and  drove  the  Chinese  out  of  their  batteries  before 
the  troops  could  be  disembarked.  Two  hundred  and  fifty-three  guns 
were  taken,  of  heavy  calibre  and  ii  feet  long.  On  the  19th  two  other 
batteries  were  taken,  in  which  were  4S  guns.  The  troops  then  took 
possession  of  the  city  of  Shanghai. 

TREATY  SIGNED  AT  NANKIN. 

A  strong  garrison  being  left  behind  for  the  retention  of  Ching- 
Kiang-foo,  the  fleet  proceeded  towards  Nankin,  about  forty  miles  distant, 
and  arrived  on  the  6th  of  August,  when  preparations  were  immediately 
made  for  an  attack  on  the  city.  A  strong  force  under  the  command  of 
Major-General  Lord  Saltoun  was  landed  and  took  up  their  position  to  the 
west  of  the  town  ;  and  operations  were  about  to  be  commenced,  when  a 
letter  was  sent  off  to  the  plenipotentiary,  refjuesting  a  truce,  as  certain 
high  commissioners,  specially  delegated  by  the  Emperor,  and  possessed 
of  all  powers  to  negotiate,  were  on  their  way  to  treat  with  the  English. 
After  several  visits  and  long  discussions  between  the  contracting  powers, 
the  treaty  was  publicly  signed  on  board  the  "  Cornwallis  "  by  Sir  H. 
Pottinger  and  the  three  commissioners. 

Under  the  terms  of  this  treaty,  which  was  ratified  in  1843,  the  ports 

of   Canton,   Amoy,   Foochow,   Ningpo    and    Shanghai    were    opened    to 

British  commerce,  and  Hong  Kong  was  ceded  outright  to  Great  Britain. 

Hong  Kong  has  since  become  one  of  the  greatest  commercial  marts  of 

the  world. 

ANNEXATION   OF   NATAL. 

A  considerable  addition  was  made  to  the  British  Empire  in  South 
Africa  in  1842  by  the  annexation  of  Natal.  This  colony  had  been 
founded  largely  by  the  Dutch,  who  had  migrated  from  Cape  Colony  in 
the  Great  Trek.  It  was,  however,  always  claimed  by  Great  Britain,  and 
was  recognized  by  the  European  powers  as  being  within  the  British 
sphere  of  influence.  When,  therefore,  disorders  arose,  and  quarrels  be- 
tween the  Dutch  settlers  and  the  British  authorities  of  the  Cape,  annexa- 
tion speedily  followed. 

O'CONNELL'S   AGITATION. 

The  union  between  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  which  had  been 
effected  at  the  beginning  of  the  century,  had  all  along  been  a 
source  of  some  dissatisfaction  in  Ireland.  In  1843  this  dissatisfaction 
found    in    Daniel    O'Connell    a    most    eloquent    voice.      He    began   an 


STORY    OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS.  26 1 

open  movement  to  secure  the  repeal  of  the  Act  of  Union.  In  August, 
1843,  he  organized  a  monster  mass-meeting  on  the  historic  hill  of 
Tara,  in  consequence  of  which  he  was  arrested  in  October.  Upon 
his  liberation,  however,  he  continued  his  efforts  for  disunion,  or  sepa- 
ration, and  though  he  was  not  successful,  he  started  the  movement 
which  has  continued  to  the  present  time,  and  which  led  to  the  great 
Home  Rule  campaign  of  Charles  S.  Parnell.  O'Connell's  health 
failed  soon  after  his  separatist  campaign  was  begun,  and  in  1847  he  died. 

BRITISH   INTERESTS. 

The  Melbourne  ministry  in  Great  Britain  went  out  of  office  in  1841, 
and  Sir  Robert  Peel  became  Prime  Minister.  Thus  the  way  was  opened 
for  the  triumph  of  the  Anti-Corn  Law  movement  and  the  adoption  of  free 
trade,  which  was  effected  at  a  later  date.  In  1844  Peel  remodeled  the 
Bank  of  England  and  gfranted  that  institution  a  new  charter. 

On  the  30th  of  May,  1842,  as  Her  Majesty,  Queen  Victoria,  accom- 
panied by  Prince  Albert,  was  returning  down  Constitution  Hill  to  Buck- 
ingham Palace  from  her  afternoon's  ride,  a  young  man,  named  John 
Francis,  fired  a  pistol  at  the  carriage,  but  without  effecting  any  injury. 
It  was  supposed  that  he  was  incited  to  this  criminal  act  partly  by  desper- 
ation, and  partly  by  the  eclat  awarded  to  Edward  Oxford,  who  performed 
a  similar  e.xploit  in  June,  1840.  The  news  reached  the  House  of  Com- 
mons while  the  debate  on  the  property  tax  was  in  progress,  and  the 
House  broke  up.     The  next  day  the  bill  was  carried  by  a  majority  of  106. 

A  joint  address  congratulating  Her  Majesty  on  her  happy  escape 
was  presented  from  both  houses  of  Parliament  on  the  ist  of  June,  and  a 
form  of  thanksgiving  was  sanctioned  by  the  Privy  Council.  It  appeared 
that  some  danger  had  been  apprehended  in  consequence  of  the  same  per- 
son having  been  observed  in  the  park  on  the  preceding  day  ;  and  Lord 
Portman  stated  in  the  House  of  Lords  that  Her  Majesty  in  consequence 
would  not  permit,  on  the  30th  of  May,  the  attendance  of  those  ladies 
whose  duty  it  was  to  wait  upon  her  on  such  occasions.  Francis  was 
examined  by  the  Privy  Council,  and  then  committed  to  Newgate.  He 
was  tried,  found  guilty  of  high  treason,  and  sentenced  to  be  hung,  be- 
headed and  quartered  ;  but  it  was  deemed  proper  to  remit  the  extreme 
penalties  and  commute  his  sentence  to  transportation  for  life. 

Scarcely  more  than  a  month   had   elapsed  when   a  third  attempt  or 


262  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

pretended  attempt,  on  the  life  of  the  Queen  was  made  in  St.  James's 
Park,  Her  Majesty  being  at  the  time  on  her  way  from  Buckingham 
Palace  to  the  chapel  royal,  accompanied  by  Prince  Albert  and  the  King 
of  the  Belgians.  A  lad,  about  eighteen  years  of  age,  named  John 
William  Bean,  was  observed  to  present  a  pistol  at  Her  Majesty's  car- 
riage by  a  youth  named  Dasset,  who  seized  him  and  related  the  cir- 
cumstances to  two  policemen.  They  treated  it  as  a  joke  and  Bean 
was  allowed  to  depart,  but  he  was  subsequently  apprehended  at  his 
father's  house  and  committed  to  prison.  On  his  examination  he  per- 
sisted in  asserting  that  there  was  nothing  but  powder  and  paper  in  the. 
pistol,  and  that  he  did  not  intend  to  hurt  the  Queen.  In  fact,  he  ap- 
peared to  be  one  of  those  weak  beings  who  seem  actuated  by  a  morbid 
desire  of  notoriety. 

TWO    REVOLUTIONS. 

In  a  former  chapter  we  told  of  the  flight  of  the  Queen-Regent  of 
Spain  and  the  assumption  of  sovereign  power  by  General  Espartero 
under  sanction  of  the  Cortes.  In  1843  ''■  bloodless  revolution,  led  by 
General  Narvaez,  put  an  end  to  Espartero's  regency,  and  the  young 
Queen,  Isabella  II,  was  declared  to  be  of  age  and  competent  to  rule  in 
person. 

In  the  same  year  a  revolution  arose  in  Greece  against  the  absolute 
rule  of  King  Otho.  That  sovereign  was  compelled  to  promise  the  grant- 
ing of  a  constitutional  form  of  government,  and  in  the  following  year 
that  promise  was  fulfilled,  though  much  against  the  will  of  the  King. 

A  fatal  blow  at  the  Bourbon  dynasty  in  France  was  struck  in  1842 
when  the  young  Duke  of  Orleans,  eldest  son  of  Louis  Philippe,  was  acci- 
dentally killed.  He  was  by  far  the  ablest  and  most  popular  member  of 
the  house,  and  the  only  one  whose  hold  upon  the  public  regard  was 
sufficient  to  command  the  loyalty  of  the  nation. 

The  French  campaigns  in  Africa  were  continued  in  1844  by  the  de- 
feat of  Abd-el-Kader,  the  Algerian  chieftain.  His  ally,  the  Emperor  of 
Morocco,  was  also  disastrously  defeated,  and  was  glad  to  sue  for  peace, 
which  was  granted  to  him. 

The  brothers  Bandiera  attempted  a  revolution  in  Southern  Italy,  but 
failed  and  were  put  to  death. 

In  1844  also  Charles  XIV  of  Sweden  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Oscar  I. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 


Premont   Explores  the  Rocky    Mountedns  —  Newspapers  —  Telegraphy  — 

Wheatstone's  System  —  Greenough's  "Washington"  — 

Labor  Troubles — Francia,  the  Dictator — 

Autocracy  Extraordinary. 


THE  period  of  the  Harrison-Tyler  administration  was  signalized  in 
the  United  States  by  a  noteworthy  advance  in  the  exploration  of 
what  was  then  the  great  wilderness  west  of  the  Mississippi  River. 
The  leader  in  this  work,  who  thus  gained  for  himself  the  well  de- 
served name  of  "The  Pathfinder,"  was  John  Charles  Fremont,  a  native 
of  Georgia,  of  French  Huguenot  ancestry.  He  had  for  some  time  been 
in  the  employ  of  the  Government  as  an  engineer,  when  in  1838  he  laid 
before  the  War  Department  a  plan  for  the  exploration  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  the  region  beyond  them.  His  plan  was  approved,  and 
accordingly  he  proceeded  with  the  work.  In  1842  he  explored  the  South 
Pass.  Next  he  planned  an  expedition  to  Oregon,  and  in  pursuance 
thereof  he  approached  the  mountains  by  a  new  route,  explored  the  region 
between  the  South  Pass  and  the  Great  Salt  Lake,  and  various  other  parts 
of  the  mountain  range.  Another  expedition  led  by  him  made  its  way 
across  the  mountains  into  upper  California,  exploring  the  great  basin 
since  called  Fremont's  Basin,  the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  the  San  Joaquin 
and  Sacramento  valleys.  Finally,  in  1845,  ^^  set  out  on  that  memorable 
expedition  to  the  Pacific  coast  which  resulted  in  the  acquisition  of  Cali- 
fornia by  the  United  States. 

NEWSPAPERS. 

It  was  fitting  that  in  times  so  full  of  stirrincj  incidents  there  should 
be  marked  progress  in  the  means  of  recording  current  history.  Long 
before  the  opening  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  newspaper  press  had 
become  a  well  established  institution.  But  at  about  the  time  at  which  we 
are  now  writing  its  expansion  in  the  United  States  was  particularly 
marked.     Of  the  great  morning  papers  now  in  existence   in  New  York, 

263 


264  STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

the  "Sun"  was  the  first  in  the  field,  having  been  started  as  a  one-cent 
paper  in  1833.  It  was  followed  in  1835  by  the  "Herald."  The  year 
1841  saw  the  "  Tribune  "  founded  by  Horace  Greeley,  and  ten  years  later 
the  "Times"  appeared. 

These  papers  were  in  1841  printed  on  the  single-cylinder  presses, 
which  had  been  invented  by  Robert  Hoe  in  1832.  That  press  continued 
in  use  until  1847,  but  in  1845  Mr.  Hoe  invented  the  type-revolving 
press,  and  this  machine  rapidly  came  into  use  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 
It  held  the  field  until  1868-71,  when  the  web-perfecting  press  came  into 
use,  invented  by  Mr.  Bullock,  of  Philadelphia,  Mr.  Walters,  of  the 
London  "Times,"  and  Mr.  Hoe.  The  use  of  stereotype  plates  had 
meanwhile  been  found  practicable  in  the  New  York  "  Tribune  "  office 
first  of  all  in  America.  If  to  this  we  add  the  introduction  of  the  lineotype 
and  other  type-setting  or  casting  devices,  about  1880,  and  that  of  photo- 
engraving processes  for  illustration,  ten  years  later,  the  modern  history 
of  newspapers  is  covered  in  outline. 

TELEGRAPHY. 

The  electric  telegraph,  one  of  the  newspaper's  most  important  ad- 
juncts, and  one  of  the  most  valuable  inventions  of  modern  times,  dates 
also  from  the  period  which  we  have  under  consideration.  As  is  the  case 
of  other  devices,  its  actual  origin  is  in  dispute.  Wheatstone,  of  Eng- 
land, was  one  of  the  first — perhaps  the  first — to  make  a  practical  tele- 
graph system.  The  distinction  was  also  claimed  by  Professor  Morse,  an 
American,  who,  as  he  said,  invented  the  first  electro-magnetic  telegraph 
while  on  his  passage  from  Havre  to  New  York  in  1832.  His  contriv- 
ance included  a  pen  at  one  end  of  a  wire,  which,  as  contact  was  made  or 
broken,  produced  an  arbitrary  alphabet  of  dots  and  strokes,  which  might 
represent  definite  characters.  An  experiment  with  a  circuit  of  ten  miles 
was  tried  before  several  scientific  men,  well  known  in  the  United  States, 
and  members  of  Congress  ;  and  the  result  being  favorable,  a  sum  of 
money  was  voted  by  the  Government  for  a  trial  on  a  larger  scale.  The 
account  of  these  proceedings  appears  not  to  have  been  published  earlier 
than  1837  ;  meantime  Baron  Schilling,  of  St.  Petersburg,  had  constructed 
an  electric  telegraph,  but  died  before  its  complete  development.  By  his 
method,  mov^ements  were  imparted  to  five  needles,  out  of  which  a  code 
of  signals  v.'as  formed.     Gauss  and  Weber's  experiments  and  deductions. 


HENRY  CLAY 


OTTO  VON  BISMARCK 


JAMES  G.BLAINE 


JOHN  CALDWELL  CALHOUN 
BENJAMIN  DISRAELI 


LORD  SALISBURY 


J«SO— EMINENT  STATESMEN  OF  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY 


oi 
D 
H 

X 


Q 
Q 


X 
in 

— ^ 

?^ 

w 

L) 

W 

ta 

a; 

E- 


STORY  OF  U.NE  HUXURED  YEARS.  267 

published  in  1834,  brought  the  possibility  of  electro-telegraphy  still  more 
within  reach.  lo  these  two  philosophers  the  theory  of  the  science  is 
materially  indebted.  The  first-mentioned,  the  venerable  professor  of 
Gottingen,  has  been  called  its  father,  such  are  the  sagacity  and  insight 
which  he  had  brought  to  bear  on  so  intricate  a  subject. 

We  come  now  to  1837,  the  year  in  which  the  projects  of  electro- 
telegraphy  became  available  realities.  Steinheil,  of  Munich,  succeeded 
in  sending  a  current  from  one  end  to  the  other  of  a  wire  36,000  feet 
in  length,  the  action  of  which  caused  two  needles  to  vibrate  from  side  to 
side,  and  strike  a  bell  at  each  movement.  The  bells  were  made  to  differ 
in  tone,  so  as  to  indicate  distinctly  right  and  left  signals  ;  at  the  same  time 
to  combine  a  phonic  and  a  written  alphabet ;  certain  points  tipped  with 
ink  impressed  dots  upon  a  band  of  paper,  and  recorded  the  desired  mes- 
sage. In  the  course  of  his  researches  Steinheil  proved  a  fact,  the  most 
interesting,  perhaps,  in  telegraphic  science,  that  instead  of  using  two 
wires,  the  earth  would  serve  to  complete  the  circuit.  This  verification  of 
a  phenomenon  so  extraordinary  in  its  nature  was  attended  with  the  most 
important  results  in  the  economy  of  telegraphs,  and  tends  more  to  keep 
Steinheil's  name  in  memory  than  his  mechanical  apparatus,  which  was 
said  to  be  too  complicated  and  tedious  in  operation  for  anyone  but  a 
German. 

WHEATSTONE'S   SYSTEM. 

It  was  in  1837  also  that  Wheatstone,  whose  name  is  so  intimately 
associated  with  telegraphic  progress  in  England,  took  out  his  first  patent 
for  an  electric  telegraph.  He  had  been  led  to  the  invention  by  his  e.xpe- 
riments  to  determine  the  philosophy  of  electricity  in  1S34,  and  proposed 
a  system  of  five  conducting  wires  in  connection  with  as  many  needles, 
which  indicated  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  at  the  rate  of  twenty  a  minute. 
Attention  was  to  be  drawn  to  the  signals  by  the  stroke  of  a  bell,  form- 
ing part  of  the  apparatus. 

In  1840  Wheatstone  had  made  improvements  which  greatly  simpli- 
fied his  first  methods.  The  number  of  wires  was  reduced  to  two,  while 
the  power  of  the  instrument  was  increased,  for  thirty  letters  could  be  in- 
dicated in  a  minute.  Besides  this,  the  same  inventor  showed  that  the 
passage  of  a  current  afforded  means  for  other  spheres  of  observation. 
Travelling  at  a  speed  that  would  circumvolate  the  globe  seven  or  eight 
times  in  a  second,  it  might  measure  the  rate  of  motion  of  projectiles,  or 


268  STOKV  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

regulate  the  movement  of  all  the  clocks  in  the  country  ;  and  by  an  addi- 
tional contrivance,  the  place  of  fracture  in  a  wire  could  be  ascertained 
without  examining  its  whole  length.  A  telegraphic  wire  was  to  bring 
down  from  a  balloon,  stationary  at  a  considerable  height,  the  readings  of 
a  set  of  philosophical  instruments;  to  record  the  state  of  fluctuations  of 
a  barometer,  thermometer,  hygrometer  and  magnetometer. 

The  employment  of  the  printing  apparatus  in  1843  gave  to  the  elec- 
tric telegraph  a  wider  and  completer  efficiency.  This  contrivance,  when 
attached  to  the  telegraph  machinery,  and  set  in  motion  by  wheelwork, 
caused  a  ribbon  of  chemically  prepared  paper  to  pass  under  a  fine  steel 
point,  which  imprinted  a  series  of  arbitrary  characters — dots  and  strokes 
— simultaneously  with  their  transmission  from  the  other  .end  of  the  tele- 
graph, however  distant.  Although  seventy  or  eighty  characters  could  be 
produced  in  a  minute,  the  whole  process  was  tedious,  as  the  message 
had  first  to  be  punched  in  a  strip  of  paper  and  then  written  off  after  its 
delivery.  In  America  the  preliminary  punching  was  avoided  by  making 
the  operator  open  or  close  the  galvanic  circuit  for  longer  or  shorter  in- 
tervals, by  pressing  on  the  spring-key  of  the  telegraph,  according  to  the 
duration  strokes  or  dots  were  produced. 

A  successful  telegraph  line  was  constructed  by  Morse  in  1844  be- 
tween Baltimore  and  Washington,  and  it  was  the  beginning  of  the  vast 
network  of  wires  that  now  covers  this  continent. 

GREENOUGH'S  WASHINGTON. 

Artistic  progress  in  the  United  States  was  signalized  during  this  ad- 
ministration by  the  completion  of  Greenough's  famous  statue  of  Wash- 
ington. Its  creator.  Horatio  Greenough,  was  a  native  of  Boston,  a 
student  at  Hartford,  and  a  protegee  of  Washington  Allston.  He 
studied  art  under  Thorwaldsen  at  Rome,  and  was  the  author  of  a  number 
of  pieces  of  sculpture  which  commanded  the  highest  praise  and  stamped 
him  as  one  of  the  foremost  artists  of  his  time.  By  a  curious  coincidence 
his  teacher,  Thorwaldsen,  died  in  1844,  just  as  Greenough  was  reach- 
ingr  the  heisfht  of  his  success. 

The  same  year  saw  the  death  of  Geoffrey  Saint-Hilaire,  the  famous 
French  naturalist.  Robert  Southey,  the  English  poet-laureate  and  one 
of  the  most  prolific  writers  of  that  or  any  age,  died  in  the  preceding 
year. 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  269 

One  of  the  most  striking  literary  incidents  of  the  time  was  the  pub- 
lication, in   1844,  of  Eugene  Sue's  romance,  "  The  Wandering  Jew." 

We  must  note,  also,  the  first  visit  of  Charles  Dickens  to  the  United 
Slates.  The  famous  novelist  made  a  tour  of  the  country,  lecturing  and 
reading  from  his  works.  He  was  everywhere  received  with  the  greatest 
possible  honors  and  enthusiasm.  One  disagreeable  result  of  his  visit 
was,  however,  the  publication  of  his  "  American  Notes "  and  other 
writings,  in  which  the  United  States  was  severely  criticised  and  cari- 
catured. 

The  city  of  Hamburg,  Germany,  was  ravaged  by  a  disastrous  fire 
in  May,  1842.  The  next  year  the  Thames  tunnel,  then  deemed  one  of 
the  engineering  wonders  of  the  world,  was  completed  and  opened  to 
the  public. 

We  have  elsewhere  spoken  of  the  Bunker  Hill  monument.  It  was 
completed  an  1  dedicated,  with  an  oration  by  Daniel  Webster,  on  June 
17,  1843. 

LABOR  TROUBLES. 

From  time  to  time  labor  troubles  demand  notice  in  the  history  of  the 
United  States  and  of  the  world.  In  April,  1834,  the  laborers  on  the 
Providence  Railroad  struck  at  Mansfield,  Mass.,  and  became  riotous. 
The  Massachusetts  militia  was  called  out  to  suppress  their  disorders,  and 
succeeded  in  so  doing.  In  August,  1835,  the  operatives  of  twenty  mills 
in  Paterson,  N.  J.,  struck  for  shorter  hours  of  work.  This  seems  to  have 
been  a  determined  struggle,  but  the  strikers  lost  their  points  of  conten- 
tion, and  $24,000  in  wages  besides.  The  ten-hour-day  agitation  was 
continued  by  the  coal  handlers  of  Philadelphia  in  May,  1835,  though 
without  decisive  result,  while  the  same  year  the  journeymen  shoemakers 
again  struck  for  shorter  hours  and  more  pay,  and  again  carried  their 
point.  Next  in  order  came  the  dam-builders  in  Maine,  in  July,  1836,  with 
their  successful  contention  for  the  rieht  to  smoke  at  work  ;  and  of  the 
fifteen  strikes  between  that  year  and  1842,  so  meagre  are  the  statistics, 
it  is  apparent  barely  that  ten  were  successful,  and  three  without  positive 
advantage  to  either  side. 

The  first  strike  of  the  ironmakers  of  Pittsburg,  of  which  there  seems 
to  be  record,  is  that  of  February  5,  1842.  They  demanded  a  fixed  wage 
scale,  and  lost  five  months'  waofes  and  the  strike.  In  August  of  the  same 
year  the  weavers   of  Philadelphia   struck   for   more   wages,  antl  were  as 


2  7°  STORY    OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

disorderly,  in  their  way,  it  seems,  as  the  tailors  of  Tooley  street.  They 
raised  a  great  deal  of  row,  and  their  disorders  were  not  quieted  until 
January,  1843,  when  there  was  a  settlement  in  the  nature  of  a  compro- 
mise. The  strike  of  the  brickmakers  in  May,  1S43,  was  attended  by 
rioting  and  considerable  destruction  of  property,  but  there  was  no  decided 
advantage  to  either  party  to  the  contest.  In  May,  1845,  the  ironworkers 
of  Pittsburg  struck  again,  this  time  for  $6.00  instead  of  ^5.00  a  ton,  and 
this  time  they  were  successful. 

FRANCIA.  THE   DICTATOR. 

The  year  1842  witnessed  the  end  of  one  of  the  strangest  chapters  in 
the  annals  of  human  government,  in  the  death  of  one  man,  who  may  be 
pronounced  the  most  remarkable  personage  that  has  figured  in  the 
modern  history  of  South  America.  This  was  Caspar  Rodrigo  de 
Francia,  commonly  known  as  Doctor  Francia.  He  was  a  native  of 
Paraguay,  and  never  was  out  of  South  America.  He  was  educated  by 
the  monks  of  Assumpcion,  and  subsequently  at  the  University  of  Cor- 
dova, in  Tucuman,  where  he  received  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Theology 
This  man  became  dictator  of  Paraguay,  and  for  nearly  thirty  years  reigned 
over  that  country  with  a  despotic  tyranny  surpassing  that  of  any  European 
monarch. 

On  the  breaking  out  of  the  revolution,  Francia  was  in  the  practice 
of  the  law  at  Assumpcion.  He  was  elected  to  a  popular  office,  behaved 
independently,  flattered  no  party,  and  professed  his  sole  political  object 
to  be  the  entire  separation  of  Paraguay  from  Spain,  and  its  erection  into 
an  independent  I'epublic.  On  the  establishment  of  the  Provincial  Junta, 
he  was  appointed  Secretary  of  that  body,  with  a  deliberative  voice  ;  but 
all  was  confusion.  The  army,  as  usual  on  such  occasions,  seemed 
inclined  to  take  the  lead,  and,  for  a  time,  terror  and  dissension  alone 
prevailed.  Francia,  however,  at  this  critical  moment,  obtained  an  ascen- 
dancy which  he  never  afterwards  lost.  His  superior  talents,  address  and 
information  placed  him  above  all  others  in  the  despatch  of  business, 
and  nothing  of  importance  could  be  done  without  him.  Tranquillity  was 
restored,  and  it  was  settled  that  the  Covernment  should  be  consular. 
Francia  and  a  colleague  were  appointed  consuls  for  one  year,  each  in 
supreme  command  four  months  at  a  time.  Francia  took  care  to  secure 
for  his  share  the  first  and  last  portions  of  the  year.     Two  cur  ale  chairs 


r. 


STURY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  273 

were  prepared  on  this  occasion  ;  one  bearing  the  name  of  Caesar,  and  the 
otlier  that  of  Pompey.  Francia  eagerly  took  possession  of  the  former. 
His  ambitious  views  no  one  could  mistake  ;  but  the  grand  blow  yet 
remained  to  be  struck.  By  the  most  consummate  art  and  management, 
and  by  the  influence  which  he  possessed  over  the  troops,  he  succeeded 
in  getting  himseli  appointed  dictator  in  1814;  and  once  dictator,  every 
instrument  was  within  his  reach  for  the  prolongation  of  his  office.  Three 
years  afterwards  he  was  made  dictator  for  life. 

AUTOCRACY  EXTRAORDINARY. 

Now  commenced  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  events  in  all  history, 
the  reign  of  the  autocrat  of  Paraguay.  From  the  moment  when  he  found 
his  footing  firm,  and  his  authority  quietly  submitted  to,  his  whole  charac- 
ter appeared  to  undergo  a  sudden  change.  Without  faltering  or  hesita- 
tion, without  a  pause  of  human  weakness,  or  a  thrill  of  human  feeling,  he 
proceeded  to  frame  the  most  extraordinary  despotism  that  the  world  has 
ever  seen.  He  reduced  all  the  population  of  Paraguay  to  two  classes, 
of  which  the  dictator  constituted  one,  and  his  subjects  the  other.  In  the 
dictator  was  lodged  the  whole  power,  legislative  and  executive  ;  the 
people  had  no  power,  no  privileges,  no  rights,  and  only  one  duty — to 
obey.  All  was  performed  rapidly,  boldly  and  decisively.  He  knew  the 
character  of  the  weak  and  ignorant  people  at  whose  head  he  had  placed 
himself,  and  who  had  the  temerity  to  presume  that  they  possessed  energy 
and  virtue  sufficient  to  found  a  republic.  The  middle  classes  w-ere 
annihilated,  and  there  was  no  gradation    between    ruler  and  populace. 

By  what  precise  means  he  was  enabled  to  obtain  so  extraordinary  a 
power,  and  to  preserve  it,  undisturbed  by  revolution  or  popular  disaffec- 
tion, during  a  long  period,  in  which  every  other  State  of  Spanish  America 
has  been  constantly  shaken  with  intestine  convulsions,  can  be  understood 
perhaps  only  by  those  who  are  familiar  with  the  character  of  the  South 
Americans.  But  the  fact  is  no  less  authentic  than  extraordinary,  that  the 
inhabitants  of  Paraguay  delivered  themselves  up,  bound  hand  and  foot 
into  the  power  of  an  unrelenting  and  ferocious  despot,  who  reduced  them 
to  absolute  slavery,  ruined  their  commerce  and  agriculture,  shut  them  up 
from  the  rest  of  the  world,  and  dragged  to  the  prison  or  the  scaffold 
every  man  in  the  country  whose  talents,  wealth  or  knowledge  opposed 

any  obstacle  in  the  way  of  his  tyranny. 
15 


2  74  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

One  of  his  first  measures  was  to  cut  off  all  intercourse  with  every 
place  beyond  the  boundaries  of  Paraguay.  No  human  being  was  allowed 
to  leave  the  country  or  despatch  a  letter  abroad.  In  enforcing  this  pro- 
hibition, the  dictator  was  assisted  by  the  peculiar  geographical  features 
of  the  country.  In  the  midst  of  an  immense  and  thinly-peopled  conti- 
nent, it  stands  alone  and  impenetrable,  surrounded  by  large  rivers  and 
extensive  forests  and  morasses,  frequented  only  by  ferocious  savages, 
wild  beasts  and  venomous  serpents.  The  vigilant  guard  maintained  by 
the  troops  of  the  dictator,  at  all  accessible  points  of  his  Empire,  enabled 
him  to  isolate  it  completely  from  the  rest  of  the  world.  The  only  possi- 
bility of  escape  was  by  seizing  the  occasion  when  the  river  Paraguay 
overflowed  the  surrounding  plains,  by  which  means  a  small  number  of 
individuals  have  succeeded  in  eloping  from  the  tyrant's  dominion,  and 
acquainting  the  world  with  the  internal  policy  of  this  extraordinary 
Empire.  Foreign  travellers,  who  were  visiting  that  region  for  scientific 
purposes,  were  imprisoned  with  the  dictator's  subjects,  and  escaped 
by  good  fortune  after  long  and  tedious  detention.  When  the  indepen- 
dence of  the  South  American  republics  was  acknowledged  by  Great 
Britain,  a  notification  of  this  event  was  sent  to  Francia,  with  a  request 
that  all  British  subjects  in  his  realms  might  be  set  at  liberty.  This  fortu- 
nately procured  the  release  of  all  the  English  in  Paraguay. 

Several  conspiracies  were  formed  against  him,  but  none  with  any 
success.  The  sanguinary  punishments  which  followed  their  detection 
served  to  strike  a  deeper  terror  into  the  people  and  render  their  sub- 
mission more  abject.  His  regular  army  consisted  of  5000  men,  from 
whom  he  always  took  care  to  e.xclude  all  persons  of  education  or  belong- 
ing to  wealthy  families.  Very  strict  discipline  was  enforced  in  all  that 
related  to  their  conduct  as  soldiers  ;  but  when  off  duty,  they  were  at 
perfect  liberty,  led  licentious  lives,  and  were  seldom  reprimanded  for  any 
misconduct  toward  the  citizens.  It  is  easy  to  understand  why  an  army  like 
this  should  feel  unbounded  attachment  to  its  master.  The  dictator,  how- 
ever, lived  in  constant  fear  of  assassination  ;  his  guards  were  sometimes 
ordered  to  shoot  any  man  who  should  dare  to  look  at  his  house  in  passing 
through  the  street.  He  cooked  his  own  victuals,  in  apprehension  of 
poison,  and  never  smoked  a  cigar  without  previously  unrolling  it,  for  the 
same  reason.  His  conduct  on  many  occasions  exhibited  eccentricities 
similar  to  those  of  Charles  XII,  of  Sweden. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 


James  K.  Polk  becomes  President  of  the   United  States — ^The    Mexican 
War— General  Taylor  at  the  Front— Palo  Alto— Monterey— President 
Santa  Anna— ^Taylor  Resumes  Operations — Buena  Vista — Scott  at 
Vera  Cruz  —  Cerro  Gordo  ^  Two   Bloody  Battles — Suing  for 
Peace — Capture  of  the  City  of  Mexico — Conquest  of  New 
Mexico — Fremont's  Conquest  of  California — Treaty  of 
Guadalupe   Hidalgo  —  The  Wilmot  Proviso  —  Dis- 
covery of  Gold — Close  of  the  Administration 
— The  Free  Soil  Party. 


IN  1845,  ^Ii"-  Tyler  was  succeeded  as  President  of  the    United  States 
by  James  Knox  Polk.     Mr.  Polk  was  the  Democratic  candidate  ;  and, 
after  a  very  exciting  electioneering  contest,  he  received  1 70  electoral 
votes  for  President ;  and  Henrj'  Clay,  the  Whig  candidate,  received 
105  votes. 

The  party  by  which  Mr.  Polk  was  supported  took  strong  ground  in 
favor  of  the  annexation  of  Texas,  and  the  claim  of  the  United  States  to 
the  whole  of  the  Oregon  Territory;  and  Mr.  Polk,  in  his  inaugural 
address,  sustained  the  views  of  his  party  on  both  of  these  questions  ; 
one  of  which  threatened  to  involve  the  nation  in  hostilities  with  Mexico, 
and  the  other  with  Great  Britain. 

The  settlement  of  the  north-western  boundary,  between  the  United 
States  and  the  North  American  territories  of  Great  Britain,  involving 
the  claims  of  both  parties  to  the  Oregon  Territory,  had  long  been  a 
subject  of  negotiation  ;  and  it  now  assumed  a  threatening  aspect.  But 
it  was  happily  adjusted  by  a  treaty,  concluded  at  Washington,  in  June, 
1846,  fixing  on  the  49th  degree  of  north  latitude  as  the  boundary 
line. 

On  the  recommendation  of  the  President,  Congress  passed,  in  July, 
1846,  a  new  tariff  law,  having  a  primary  view  to  the  interests  of  the 
public  revenue,  and  withdrawing,  in  a  great  measure,  the  protection  to 
domestic  industry  afforded  by  the  tariff  of  1842. 

275 


276  STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

THE  MEXICAN  WAR. 

The  war  with  Mexico  i>rew  out  of  the  annexation  of  Texas  to  the 
United  States.  Texas,  which  was  formerly  a  province  of  Mexico, 
declared  its  independence  in  1836;  and,  from  that  time,  it  had  maintained 
a  separate  Republican  government ;  but  its  independence  had  not  been 
acknowledged  by  Mexico.  In  March,  1845,  immediately  after  the 
passage  of  the  resolutions  of  Congress  in  favor  of  the  annexation, 
General  Almonte,  the  Mexican  Minister  to  the  United  States,  remon- 
strated against  these  resolutions,  and  demanded  his  passports  ;  and  all 
diplomatic  intercourse  between  the  two  governments  was  immediately 
broken  off 

The  boundaries  of  Texas  were  never  definitely  settled.  The  gov- 
ernment of  Texas  and  the  United  States  maintained  that  the  South- 
western boundary  of  that  country  was  formed  by  the  Rio  Grande  ;  but 
the  Mexicans  contended  that  that  boundary  was  formed  by  the  River 
Nueces.  The  country  between  these  two  rivers  was  disputed  territory, 
both  parties  claiming  it.  It  was  on  this  disputed  territory  that  hostilities 
commenced  ;  and  each  party  charged  the  other  with  being  the  aggressor. 

In  July,  1845,  the  Legislature  of  Texas  ratified  the  resolutions  of 
Congress,  by  which  that  Republic  was  annexed  to  the  United  States, 
and  requested  President  Polk  to  take  immediate  measures  to  defend  the 
new  State  against  an  apprehended  attack  from  Mexico.  An  American 
squadron  was  accordingly  dispatched  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and 
General  Zachary  Taylor  was  ordered  to  proceed  to  the  southern  frontier 
of  Texas,  with  a  sufficient  force  for  its  defence. 

GENERAL  TAYLOR  AT  THE  FRONT. 

In  March,  1846,  General  Taylor,  having  previously  concentrated 
\an  army  of  about  4000  men  at  Corpus  Christi,  received  orders  from  the 
United  States  government  to  move  forward,  into  the  disputed  territory, 
to  the  Rio  Grande.  He  accordingly  took  a  position  on  the  left  bank  of 
that  river,  opposite  to  Matamoras,  where  he  erected  a  fort ;  and,  at  the 
same  time,  he  established  a  depot  of  supplies  at  Point  Isabel,  upwards 
of  twenty  miles  in  his  rear,  near  the  coast. 

A  Mexican  force  of  about  8000  men  was  soon  assembled  on  the 
Rio  Grande,  at  and  near  Matamoras,  under  the  command  of  Generals 
Ampudia  and  Arista,  who  declared  the  advance  of  General  Taylor  with 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  277 

his  army  to  be  a  hostile  movement.  On  the  24th  of  April,  General 
Arista  informed  General  Taylor  that  "  he  considered  hostilities  com- 
menced, and  should  prosecute  them."  On  the  same  day  a  party  of 
63  American  dragoons,  under  Captain  Thornton,  who  had  been 
despatched  to  reconnoitre,  were  surprised  by  a  large  Mexican  force, 
[6  being  killed  and  wounded,  and  the  rest  taken  prisoners. 

A  few  days  afterwards,  the  greater  part  of  the  Mexican  army 
crossed  the  river,  and  General  Taylor,  being  informed  that  they  intended 
to  attack  Point  Isabel,  where  his  military  stores  were  deposited,  marched 
to  the  relief  of  that  place,  which  he  reached  unmolested.  The  garrison 
there  having  been  strengthened  by  a  reinforcement  of  500  sailors  and 
marines,  from  the  American  squadron  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  he  began, 
on  the  7th  of  May,  to  retrace  his  steps  to  the  Rio  Grande. 

PALO  ALTO. 

About  noon  the  next  day  he  encountered  the  Mexican  army,  of 
6000  men,  at  Palo  Alto  ;  and,  after  an  action  of  five  hours,  he  drove 
them  from  the  field,  with  the  loss  of  nearly  400  in  killed  and  wounded. 
The  Americans,  whose  number  was  about  2300,  lost  about  50  in  killed 
and  wounded,  and  among  the  former  was  the  lamented  Major  Ringgold. 

On  the  following  day,  after  advancing  three  miles,  the  American 
army  again  met  the  Mexicans,  strongly  posted  at  Resaca  de  la  Palma, 
and  completely  routed  them,  killing  and  wounding  about  600,  taking  a 
large  number  of  prisoners,  among  whom  was  General  La  Vega,  and 
capturing  all  the  cannon  and  military  stores  of  the  enemy.  A  few  days 
after  this  battle,  General  Taylor  crossed  the  Rio  Grande,  and  took 
possession  of  Matamoras,  which  had  been  left  by  the  Mexican  troops. 

MONTEREY. 

After  three  months'  preparation,  General  Taylor,  with  an  army  of 
between  6000  and  7000  men,  proceeded  to  attack  the  strongly  fortified 
city  of  Monterey,  the  capital  of  the  State  of  New  Leon,  which  was 
garrisoned  by  about  io,coo  Mexican  troops,  commanded  by  General 
Ampudia. 

The  American  army  reached  Monterey  on  the  19th  of  September, 
1846,  and,  on  the  21st,  assaulted  the  city  with  the  view  of  taking  it  by 
storm  ;  and,  after  a  severe  and  sanguinary  struggle  of  three  days,  they 


278  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

became  masters  of  the  principal  defences,  and  the  greater  part  of  tha 
city.  On  the  24th,  General  AmpLidia  proposed  terms  of  capitulation, 
which  were  accepted,  and  the  Mexican  army  evacuated  Monterey.  At 
the  same  time.  General  Taylor  agreed  to  an  armistice  of  eight  weeks, 
subject  to  the  ratification  of  the  governments  at  Washington  and 
Mexico. 

PRESIDENT  SANTA  ANNA. 

While  these  events  were  taking  place  near  the  Rio  Grande,  General 
Santa  Anna,  ex-President  of  Mexico,  and  the  most  distinguished  military 
commander  of  that  country,  had  returned  from  exile,  and  had  over- 
thrown the  government  of  President  Paredes,  who  was  at  the  head  of 
the  party  supposed  to  be  most  in  favor  of  prosecuting  the  war  with  the 
United  States.  Strong  hopes  were  entertained  by  the  American  gov- 
ernment that  the  influence  of  Santa  Anna,  on  his  restoration  to  power, 
would  be  exerted  in  favor  of  peace  ;  and  the  President  accordingly  had 
given  orders  to  the  naval  commander  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  to  throw 
no  obstacles  in  the  way  of  his  return.  But  these  expectations  proved  to 
be  ill-founded  ;  and,  under  his  administration,  the  Mexicans  were  roused 
to  greater  efforts,  than  they  had  hitherto  made,  to  repel  their  invaders. 

Under  these  circumstances,  the  American  government  resolved  to 
strike  a  decisive  blow,  by  attacking  Vera  Cruz,  the  principal  Mexican 
port  and  fortress,  with  the  intention  of  thereby  gaining  access  to  the 
heart  of  the  country,  and  to  the  capital  of  the  Republic,  for  the  avowed 
purpose  of  "  conquering  a  peace."  General  Winfield  Scott  was  accord- 
ingly ordered  to  take  the  chief  command  of  all  the  forces  in  Mexico,  and 
to  conduct  the  expedition  against  Vera  Cruz. 

TAYLOR  Ri:SUMES  OPERATIONS, 

The  armistice,  which  General  Taylor  had  concluded  at  Monterey, 
was  not  approved  by  the  authorities  at  Washington  ;  and,  in  November, 
his  army  resumed  offensive  operations,  and  speedily  overran  and  sub- 
dued the  States  of  Coahuila  and  Tamaulipas.  About  this  time,  how- 
ever. General  Scott  arrived  at  the  seat  of  war,  and  withdrew  from 
General  Taylor  the  principal  part  of  his  army,  including  nearly  all  of  the 
regular  troops,  to  augment  the  forces  destined  to  besiege  Vera  Cruz. 

In  February,  1847,  General  Taylor  formed  a  camp  of  about  5000 
men,   mostly  volunteers,  of  Agua  Nueva,  near  the  city  of  Saltillo.     On 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  279 

the  20th  of  the  month,  he  learned  that  Santa  Anna,  with  20,000  troops, 

had  arrived  within  30  miles  of  him,  by  a  series  of  forced  marches  from 

San   Luis   Potosi,   300   miles    distant,   across  a    barren   country,    almost 

destitute  of  water.     General  Taylor  immediately  broke  up  his  camp,  and 

fell  back  1 1  miles   to  Buena  Vista,  where  he  posted  his  army  in  a  very 

strong  position,  protected  by  deep   ravines   and    rugged  mountainous 

ridges. 

BUENA  VISTA. 

On  the  2 2d  of  February,  the  Mexican  army  appeared  before  the 
American  lines,  and  Santa  Anna  summoned  General  Taylor  to  sur- 
render, which  the  latter  declined  to  do.  Some  skirmishing  ensued  ;  but 
the  battle  did  not  begin  until  the  23d,  when  the  Mexicans  attempted,  by 
repeated  charges,  to  force  the  American  lines.  Notwithstanding  some 
partial  success,  achieved  by  their  immense  superiority  of  force,  they 
were,  at  length,  completely  repulsed ;  and,  after  a  fierce  and  sanguinary 
contest,  which  lasted  throughout  the  day,  the  Americans  remained 
masters  of  the  field.  During  the  night,  the  Mexicans  abandoned  their 
camp,  and  retreated,  in  a  state  of  great  disorder,  towards  San  Luis 
Potosi,  from  whence  they  had  advanced.  The  Americans'  loss,  in  this 
battle,  was  723  killed  and  wounded,  and  that  of  the  Mexicans  amounted 
to  about  2000. 

SCOTT  AT  VERA  CRUZ. 

On  the  9th  of  March,  1847,  General  Scott  landed  near  Vera  Cruz, 
with  an  army  of  about  12,000  men.  The  city  was  immediately  invested, 
and  after  a  furious  bombardment  of  several  days,  during  which  the 
destruction  of  life  and  property  was  very  great,  the  Mexican  com- 
mander, on  the  29th  of  March,  capitulated  and  surrendered  the  city,  and 
also  the  famous  fortress  of  San  Juan  d'Ulloa,  together  with  5000  prison- 
ers and  400  pieces  of  artillery. 

Early  in  April  the  American  army  began  its  march  from  Vera  Cruz 
to  the  city  of  Mexico.  At  the  mountain  pass  of  Cerro  Gordo,  about  50 
miles  from  Vera  Cruz,  it  encountered  the  Mexican  army,  commanded  by 
President  Santa  Anna,  consisting  of  12,000  or  15,000  men,  strongly 
entrenched  in  an  almost  impregnable  position. 

CERRO  GORDO. 

On  the  1 8th  of  April,  the  Americans,  who  numbered  8500,  began 
the  assault,  and  in   a  few  hours  carried  by  storm  all  the  batteries  and 


28o  STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

entrenchments  of  the  Mexicans,  who  fled  in  confusion,  leaving  in  the 
hands  of  the  victors  about  3000  prisoners,  4000  or  5000  stand  of 
arms,  and  43  pieces  of  artillery.  Among  the  prisoners  were  five  gen- 
erals, one  of  whom.  La  Vega,  had  before  been  captured  in  the  battle  of 
Resaca  de  la  Palma.  The  American  loss  in  this  engagement  was  431 
killed  and  wounded ;  the  Mexican  loss,  about  three  times  as 
many.  • 

The  victory  of  Cerro  Gordo  was  followed  by  the  immediate  sur- 
render of  the  city  of  Jalapa,  and  the  strong  fortress  of  Perote,  and,  on 
the  15th  of  May,  the  Americans  entered  Puebla,  the  most  important  city 
in  Mexico,  next  to  the  capital.  Here,  the  army,  which  had  been 
diminished  by  death,  sickness,  and  the  departure  of  volunteers,  to  about 
5000  effective  men,  remained  nearly  three  months,  waiting  for  reinforce- 
ments and  supplies. 

TWO  BLOODY  BATTLES. 

On  the  7th  of  August,  1847,  reinforcements  having  arrived.  General 
Scott  began  his  march  from  Puebla  to  the  city  of  Mexico,  at  the  head  of 
about  1 1,000  men.  On  the  i8th,  the  army  reached  the  hamlet  of  San 
Augustin,  10  miles  south  of  the  capital;  and,  on  the  20th,  two  sanguinary 
battles  were  fought  with  a  Mexican  force  of  more  than  30,000  men,  who 
were  stationed  in  and  around  the  strongly  fortified  posts  that  defended 
the  approaches  to  the  city.  In  the  first  battle,  that  of  Contreras,  4500 
Americans  assaulted,  and,  in  less  than  twenty  minutes,  drove  from  their 
entrenchments,  7000  Mexicans,  killing  700  and  taking  813  prisoners, 
besides  many  colors  and  standards,  and  22  pieces  of  artillery.  In  the 
second  battle,  that  of  Churubusco,  the  disparity  of  force  was  even 
greater,  and  the  Mexican  loss  still  more  severe — about  6000  Americans 
engaging  and  completely  routing  almost  the  whole  Mexican  army. 
General  Scott  thus  speaks  of  the  achievements  of  the  army  under  his 
command  on  this  occasion:  "It  has  in  a  single  day,  in  many  bat- 
tles, defeated  32,000  men  ;  made  about  3000  prisoners,  including 
8  generals  (two  of  them  ex-Presidents)  and  205  other  officers  ;  killed  or 
wounded  4000  of  all  ranks,  besides  entire  corps  dispersed  and  dissolved; 
captured  37  pieces  of  ordnance, — more  than  trebling  our  siege  train 
and  field  batteries, — with  a  large  number  of  small  arms,  a  full  supply 
of  ammunition  of  every  kind,  etc.  Our  loss  amounts  to  1053 — killed, 
139,  including  16  officers  ;  wounded,  876,  including  60  officers." 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  28 1 

SUING  FOR  PEACE. 

These  rapid  and  decisive  victories  caused  such  consternation  among 
the  Mexicans  that  General  Scott  might  at  once  have  forced  his  way  mto 
the  city  ;  but  he  forebore  to  do  so,  not  wishing  to  drive  the  people  to 
desperation,  and,  to  use  his  own  words:  "willing  to  leave  something  to 
the  Republic  on  which  to  rest  her  pride  and  recover  temper."  Accord 
ingly,  he  acceded  to  a  request  made  by  President  Santa  Anna  for  an 
armistice,  the  terms  of  which  were  agreed  upon  and  signed  on  the  23d 
of  August. 

Mr.  Nicholas  Trist,  a  commissioner  appointed  by  the  President  oi 
the  United  States,  had  arrived  in  Mexico  some  months  before,  and  was 
now  in  General  Scott's  camp.  Negotiations  for  peace  were  immediately 
commenced  between  him  and  commissioners  appointed  by  the  Mexican 
government.  But  as  the  latter  proposed  terms  that  were  not  satis- 
factory, and  the  Mexican  military  commanders  were  violating  the  terms 
of  the  armistice  by  erecting  and  strengthening  fortifications,  General 
Scott  recommenced  hostilities  on  the  7th  of  September. 

CAPTURE   or  THE  CITY  OF  MEXICO. 

On  the  following  day,  a  division  of  the  American  army,  3200  in 
number,  commanded  by  General  Worth,  carried  by  storm  the  strong 
position  of  El  Molino  del  Ray,  which  was  held  by  above  14,000  Mexi- 
cans, under  the  command  of  Pesident  Santa  Anna.  The  Mexican  loss 
in  this  action,  which  was  perhaps  the  most  fiercely  contested  of  the 
whole  war,  amounted  to  3000  in  killed,  wounded  and  captured.  The 
Americans  lost,  in  killed  and  wounded,  nearly  800,  about  one-fourth  of 
the  number  engaged. 

Five  days  afterwards,  the  fortress  of  Chapultepec,  situated  on  a 
steep,  rocky  hill,  150  feet  in  height,  was  stormed,  and  the  army  w^hich 
supported  it  was  routed  and  driven  into  the  city;  the  victorious  Ameri- 
cans followed,  and,  by  nightfall,  one  division  of  their  army  was  within 
the  gates  of  Mexico,  while  another  occupied  the  suburbs.  During  the 
night,  the  shattered  remnant  of  the  Mexican  army,  and  the  members  of 
the  Federal  government  and  Congress,  fled  from  the  city,  of  which  the 
Americans  took  full  possession  on  the  next  day,  September  14th,  1847. 

The  total  loss  of  General  Scott's  army^  in  these  battles  before 
Mexico,  amounted  to  about  2700  in   killed  and  wounded.     The  number 


282  STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

of  American  troops  that  entered  and  took    possession   of  this  city  of 
140,000  inhabitants  was  less  than  6000. 

CONQUEST  OF  NEW  MEXICO. 

Besides  the  invasions  of  Mexico  by  the  armies  commanded  by 
Generals  Taylor  and  Scott,  another  was  conducted  by  General  Kearny, 
who,  in  the  latter  part  of  June,  1846,  set  out  from  Missouri,  at  the  head 
of  1600  men,  mostly  volunteers  from  that  State,  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
quering New  Mexico. 

After  a  fatiguing  march  of  about  1000  miles  across  the  prairies, 
General  Kearny  arrived  at  Santa  Fe,  of  which  he  took  possession, 
without  opposition,  on  the  i8th  of  August.  He  immediately  declared 
himself  Governor  of  New  Mexico,  and  issued  a  proclamation,  absolving 
the  people  from  their  allegiance  to  the  Mexican  government,  and  con- 
stitutingr  them  citizens  of  the  United  States. 

In  December,  1846,  Colonel  Doniphan,  a  volunteer  from  the  State 
of  Missouri,  departed  from  Santa  Fe,  at  the  head  of  900  men,  to  invade 
the  Mexican  State  of  Chihuahua.  At  Bracito,  on  the  Rio  Grande,  a 
division  of  this  force,  500  in  number,  encountered  1200  Mexicans,  whom 
they  put  to  flight,  with  a  loss  of  about  200  in  killed  and  wounded,  while 
the  Americans  had  none  killed,  and  only  7  wounded. 

Two  months  later,  on  the  28th  of  February,  1847,  at  the  Pass  of 
Sacramento,  Colonel  Doniphan's  little  army  met  and  defeated  40CO 
Mexicans,  commanded  by  the  Governor  of  the  State,  and  occupying  a 
strong  position,  defended  by  heavy  artillery.  On  the  following  day, 
March  i,  they  took  possession  of  the  important  city  of  Chihuahua. 

FREMONT'S  CONQUEST  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

In  the  summer  of  1846,  Captain  (afterwards  Colonel)  Fremont,  who, 
with  a  party  of  about  600  men,  was  exploring  California  by  order  of  the 
President  of  the  United  States,  became  involved  in  hostilities  with  the 
Mexican  Governor  of  that  province.  With  the  aid  of  a  few  American 
settlers,  Fremont  defeated  the  Mexican  forces,  which  were  much  superior 
in  number;  and,  on  learning  that  war  existed  between  the  United  States 
and  Mexico,  he  raised  the  American  flag,  and  in  conjunction  with  Com- 
modore Stockton,  who  commanded  the  United  States  fleet  in  the  Pacific, 
prosecuted  the  conquest  of  the  country  with  such  success,  that,  by  the  end 
of  August,  the  whole  of  California  was  in  possession  of  the  Americans. 


STORY    OF   ONE    HUNDRED   YEARS.  283 

TREATY  OF  GUADALUPE   HIDALGO. 

Soon  after  the  conquest  of  the  city  of  Mexico,  by  General  Scott, 
negotiations  for  peace  began,  which  resulted  in  a  treaty  concluded  on 
the  2d  of  February,  1848,  at  the  city  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  and  ratified, 
with  some  modifications,  by  the  American  Senate  on  the  loth  of  the 
following  March.  By  its  provisions  Mexico  ceded  to  the  United  States 
the  provinces  of  New  Mexico  and  Upper  California,  and  agreed  to  accept 
the  Rio  Grande  as  the  boundary  between  her  territories  and  Texas.  The 
territory  acquired  from  Mexico  by  this  treaty,  including  Texas  as  well  as 
New  Mexico  and  California,  amounts,  according  to  the  statement  of  Presi- 
dent Polk  in  his  message  to  Congress  in  December,  1848,  to  851,598 
square  miles.  The  United  States,  in  return,  stipulated  to  pay  Mexico 
^15,000,000,  and  assume  the  debts  due  to  citizens  of  the  United  States 
by  the  Mexican  government  to  the  amount  of  $3,500,000. 

THE  WILMOT  PROVISO. 

The  conclusion  of  peace  with  Mexico,  in  February,  1848,  added  to 
the  United  States  an  enormous  territory,  comprising  the  present  States 
and  Territories  of  California,  Nevada,  Utah,  Arizona,  New  Mexico  and 
part  of  Colorado.  Such  a  result  had  been  foreseen.  Indeed,  it  was  largely 
to  acquire  such  territory  that  many  political  leaders,  especially  in  the 
Southern  States,  had  favored  the  war  with  Mexico,  and  their  ultimate 
object  was  the  creation  of  new  slave  States  south  of  the  line  established 
by  the  Missouri  Compromise.  In  order  to  prevent  such  increase  of  slave 
power  in  Congress,  in  1846  David  Wilmot,  a  member  of  Congress  from 
Pennsylvania,  offered  a  resolution  providing  that  slavery  should  be  for- 
ever prohibited  in  all  the  territory  that  should  be  acquired  from  Mexico. 
This  resolution  has  become  historic  as  the  Wilmot  Proviso,  and  it  marked 
the  turning-point  in  the  history  of  the  slave  power ;  for,  while  it  failed  to 
pass  Congress  and  be  enacted  into  law,  it  formulated  a  policy  which  was 
adopted  by  the  free  States,  and  which  finally  was  triumphant.  As  in 
matter  of  fact,  no  new  slave  State,  excepting  Texas,  was  ever  admitted 
to  the  Union. 

DISCOVERY   OF   GOLD. 

The  end  of  the  Mexican  War  brought  on  the  settlement  and  devel- 
opment  of  California.  The  agricultural  wealth  of  that  State  would  have 
led  to  its  general   colonization   had  there  been  no  more  potent  causes. 


284  STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

But  early  in  1848  particles  of  gold  were  discovered  in  ground  that  was 
being  turned  up  for  the  construction  of  a  mill  in  the  Sacramento  valley, 
about  forty  miles  up  the  Sacramento,  at  a  place  known  as  Sutter's  Fort. 
At  a  considerable  distance  from  this  place,  higher  up,  Captain  Sutter, 
desirous  of  erecting  a  sawmill,  contracted  for  that  purpose  with  a  Mr. 
Marshall  in  September,  1847.  When  completed,  and  the  water  was  let 
on  to  the  wheel,  the  tail-race  was  found  to  be  too  narrow  to  allow  the 
water  to  escape  with  sufficient  rapidity.  To  save  labor,  Mr.  Marshall 
let  the  water  directly  into  the  race  with  a  strong  current,  so  as  to  wash 
it  wider  and  deeper.  He  effected  his  purpose,  and  a  large  bed  of  mud 
and  gravel  was  carried  to  the  foot  of  the  race. 

One  day  Mr.  Marshall,  as  he  was  walking  down  the  race  to  this 
deposit  of  mud,  observed  some  glittering  particles  at  its  upper  edge. 
He  gathered  a  few,  examined  them,  and  became  satisfied  of  their  value. 
Repairing  to  the  fort,  he  made  known  the  discovery  to  Captain  Sutter 
and  his  impressions  of  its  importance.  Such  were  the  circumstances 
which  led  to  the  discovery  of  gold  in  that  region.  Soon  after  other  dis- 
coveries of  gold  were  made,  and  in  1849  occurred  the  great  rush  of  gold- 
seekers  to  that  country.  Within  a  year's  time  the  population  of  Califor- 
nia was  large  enough  to  warrant  its  erection  into  a  State,  and  it  was  soon 
thus  admitted  as  a  free  State. 

Iowa  was  admitted  to  the  Union  as  a  free  State  in  December,  1846, 
and  Wisconsin  in  May,  1848.  Oregon  was  organized  as  a  Territory. 
The  Mormon  metropolis  of  Salt  Lake  City  was  founded,  and  rapidly 
grew  in  size  and  wealth.  Mr.  Polk's  administration  also  witnessed  the 
beginning  of  the  great  Irish  immigration  to  this  country,  following  the 
disastrous  famine  in  that  country. 

CLOSE  OF  THE  ADMINISTRATION. 

The  administration  of  Mr.  Polk  was  signalized  by  many  interesting 
and  important  events.  Yet  it  cannot  be  said  to  have  been  popular,  even 
with  the  party  to  which  he  owed  his  elevation.  ToAvards  the  close  of  his 
term  few,  if  any,  seriously  advocated  his  re-election.  At  a  Democratic 
convention  held  in  Baltimore  May  21,  1848,  Lewis  Cass,  of  Michigan, 
was  nominated  for  the  presidency  and  General  W.  O.  Butler,  of  Ken- 
tucky, for  the  vice-presidency. 

In  June  following  (7th)  a  Whig  national  convention  was  held  in 
Philadelphia  for  a  similar  purpose.     The  principal  candidates  were  Henry 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  285 

Clay,  of  Kentucky,  General  Zachary  Taylor,  of  Louisiana,  and  General 
Winfield  Scott,  of  New  Jersey.  The  result  of  several  ballotings  was  the 
nomination  of  General  Taylor,  who,  of  the  280  votes  cast,  received  170. 
Mr.  Clay  had  32  and  General  Scott  63.  Millard  Fillmore,  of  New  York, 
was  nominated  for  the  vice-presidency. 

THE   FREE  SOIL  PARTY. 

In  the  Baltimore  Democratic  convention  the  State  of  New  York 
was  not  represented.  Two  separate  sets  of  delegates,  from  two  separate 
conventions  held  in  that  State,  were  present,  and  each  claimed  seats  ; 
and,  while  a  portion  of  the  convention  were  inclined  to  admit  one  set 
and  exclude  the  other,  and  some  were  in  favor  of  the  admission  of  both, 
it  was  at  length  decided  to  exclude  both.  In  consequence  of  this  exclu- 
sion, the  Free-Soil  party  adopted  measures  to  convene  another  conven- 
tion, which  met  at  Utica,  and  nominated  Martin  Van  Buren.  The  object 
of  this  party  was  twofold — to  defeat  Mr.  Cass,  and  next  to  lay  the 
foundation  for  organizing  a  Free  Soil  party,  designed  ultimately  to  gain 
a  political  ascendancy  in  the  United  States. 

During  the  summer  following  the  friends  of  the  respective  candi- 
dates  were  not  idle.  While  their  efforts  were  not  characterized  by  the 
enthusiasm  and  intemperance  of  some  former  electioneering  campaigns, 
no  probable  means  of  success  were  omitted.  Conventions  were  held, 
speeches  were  made,  pamphlets  circulated,  political  agents  itinerated  the 
country,  and  the  press,  as  usual,  gave  currency  to  every  good  and  evil 
report,  as  suited  its  political  taste  and  interests. 

At  length,  in  November,  the  election  was  held,  and  resulted  in  the 
choice  of  a  majority  of  electors  friendly  to  the  election  of  General  Tay- 
lor. On  the  14th  of  February,  1849,  the  votes  of  the  several  colleges 
were  opened  and  counted,  agreeably  to  the  Constitution,  in  the  presence 
of  both  houses  of  Congress,  when  it  appeared  that  the  whole  number 
of  votes  given  was  290,  of  which  General  Taylor  received  163,  and, 
accordingly,  was  declared  to  be  elected.  Millard  Fillmore,  having  a  like 
number  of  votes  for  the  vice-presidency,  was  so  proclaimed.  Lewis  Cass 
and  General  W.  O.  Butler  had  each  127  votes  for  the  respective  offices 
for  which  they  were  nominated.  Mr.  Van  Buren  failed  to  receive  the 
vote  of  a  single  State. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 


First  Sikh  War— Great  Battle  of  Ferozeshah— The  Second  Sikh  War— 
The  Irish  Famine — Abolition  of  the  Corn  Laws — Break-up  of  the  Tory 
Party— Emigration  from  Ireland — Smith  O'Brien's  Insurrection — End 
of   Chartism  ^ — The    Spanish    Marriages  —  Discontent    In      France- 
Beginning  the  Revolution — The  King's  Surrender — The   Republic 
Proclaimed — Rise  of  the  Mob — Organizing  the  Republic — Louis 
Napoleon,    President    of    France — Affairs   in    Germany — The 
Revolutionary   Era — Concessions  in    Prussia — The  Oppres- 
sion  of  Italy — Awakening  of  the   Italians — Throwing  off 
the   Austrian    Yoke — The   Suppression    of   Lombardy — 
The  Pope   Flees  from  Rome  —  Revolution  in  Austria 
Hungary — War   Threatened   in   Vienna — War   with 
Hunga^ry — "  King   Bomba  "—Reaction  in    Prussia. 


IN  1845  the  British  became  involved  in  a  war  with  the  sole  remaining 
State  of  India  which  had  preserved  its  full  independence.  For  nearly 
fifty  years  the  Punjaub  had  formed  a  powerful  kingdom  under  the 
Sikh  despot  Runjit  Singh,  a  man  of  genius,  who  had  formed  his  co- 
religionists into  an  invincible  army,  with  which  he  conquered  his  Moham- 
medan neighbors  and  held  down  all  India  north  of  the  Sutlej.  Knowing 
the  might  of  Britain,  he  had  always  kept  on  the  most  friendly  terms  with 
the  East  India  Company,  but  when  he  died,  in  1839,  trouble  ensued. 
The  proud  and  fanatical  army  which  he  had  created  would  obey  no 
meaner  masters,  and  Runjit  Singh's  successors  perished,  the  victims  of 
military  mutinies  or  palace  conspiracies.  Quite  contrary  to  the  will 
of  their  nominal  rulers,  the  Sikh  troops  resolved  to  attack  the  British, 
hoping  to  take  Delhi  and  conquer  the  whole  peninsula.  They  were,  for 
a  moment,  not  far  from  succeeding,  and  if  their  leaders  had  been 
capable  and  loyal  to  each  other  the  consequences  of  their  adventure 
might  have  been  tremendous. 

In  December,  1845,  they  crossed  the  Sudej  into  British  territory 
with  60,000  men,  and  found  themselves  confronted  by  a  much  smaller 
army  hastily  gathered  together  by  Lord  Hardinge,  the  Governor-General. 

286 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  287 

He  entrusted  his  troops  to  Sir  Hugh  Gough,  a  hot-headed  old  soldier, 
whose  only  tactics  consisted  in  hurling  his  infantry  straight  at  the  enemy 
and  endeavoring  to  sweep  them  away  with  one  desperate  charge.  This 
sort  of  attack  answered  well  enough  against  ordinary  Indian  troops,  but 
the  Sikhs  were  made  of  sterner  stuff.  The  fighting  with  them  was  very 
desperate ;  no  less  than  five  pitched  battles  were  fought  between 
December  i8,  1845,  ^"^1  February  10,  1846. 

GREAT  BATTLE  AT  FEROZESHAH. 

The  crucial  struggle  was  at  Ferozeshah,  where  Gough's  headlong 
courage  failed  on  the  first  day  to  force  the  Sikh  lines ;  his  Sepoy 
battalions  flinched,  and  his  European  regiments  suffered  the  most  fright- 
ful losses.  Next  day  he  resumed  the  struggle  ;  but  the  enemy,  whose 
losses  had  also  been  tremendous,  had  not  the  heart  to  face  two  pitched 
battles  on  successive  days,  and  sullenly  retired.  The  campaign  termi- 
nated at  Sobraon  (February  loth),  when  Gough  had  to  storm  a  circular 
entrenched  position  with  the  Sutlej  at  its  back.  Leading  his  troops  for- 
ward, with  his  customary  impetuosity,  he  saw  them  driven  back  from 
assault  after  assault.  But  finally  the  Sikhs  ungarnished  one  front  of  their 
works,  while  reinforcing  the  rest ;  a  British  column  penetrated  into  the 
gap,  and  the  gallant  enemy  were  finally  driven  into  the  Sutlej,  where 
thousands  perished  when  their  bridge  of  boats  broke  down.  Ten  days 
later  the  British  army  appeared  in  front  of  Lahore,  and  the  Sikh  Govern- 
ment asked  for  terms.  The  British  recognized  the  young  Rajah  Dhuleep 
Singh  as  the  successor  of  Runjit  Singh  ;  but  he  was  ordered  to  pay  a 
heavy  fine,  to  cut  his  army  down  to  30,000  men,  and  to  surrender  the 
south-eastern  corner  of  his  dominions,  where  they  reached  nearest  to 
Delhi. 

THE  SECOND  SIKH  WAR. 

But  the  spirit  of  the  Sikhs  was  not  yet  broken  ;  they  looked  upon 
themselves  not  as  beaten,  but  as  betrayed  by  incompetent  generals,  and 
were  quite  ready  to  try  the  fortune  of  war  once  more.  Only  two  years 
after  Sobraon  (March,  1S48),  Moolraj,  the  Governor  of  Mooltan,  massa- 
cred some  British  officers,  and  appealed  to  the  old  army  to  take  the  field 
once  more  and  throw  off  the  foreign  yoke.  The  whole  Punjaub  at  once 
blazed  up  into  insurrection,  and  the  work  of  1S46  had  to  be  repeated. 
Unhappily  for  the  British  troops,  they  were  still  under  the  command  ol 


2  88  .STORY    OF   ONE    HUNDRED   YEARS. 

the  headstrong  Gough,  who  showed  that  he  had  learned  nothuig  from 
experience.  After  two  checks,  into  which  his  rashness  led  him,  in  the 
autumn  of  1848,  he  brought  the  main  Sikh  army  into  action  at  Chillian- 
wallah.  There  he  delivered  a  frontal  attack  on  an  enemy  screened  by  a 
jungle  and  covered  by  a  tremendous  fire  of  artillery.  Some  of  the  British 
brigades  were  almost  blown  to  pieces,  but  the  valor  of  the  survivors 
evicted  the  Sikhs  from  their  lines,  and  Chillianwallah  counts  as  a  victory 
(January  1 1,  1849). 

But  the  war  was  really  settled  by  the  decisive  action  of  Goojerat 
(February  6th),  where,  for  once,  Gough  was  persuaded  to  allow  his 
artillery  to  batter  the  enemy's  lines  before  the  infantry  was  let  loose. 
Shaken  by  the  fire  of  eighty  heavy  guns  the  Sikhs  broke  when  the  attack 
was  delivered,  and  the  British  won  the  field  with  small  loss — a  great  con- 
trast to  their  sufferings  at  Ferozeshah  and  Chillianwallah.  A  month  later 
the  whole  Sikh  army  laid  down  its  arms,  and  the  Punjaub  was  annexed 
in  March,  1849.  The  problem  of  its  settlement  appeared  likely  to  be  so 
difficult  that  picked  men  were  drafted  in  from  all  the  presidencies  to  take 
up  the  task,  their  chief  being  the  administrator.  Sir  John  Lawrence.  The 
work  was  so  well  done  that  the  new  province  settled  down  into  great 
quiet  and  content,  and  when,  eight  years  later,  the  Sepoy  mutiny  broke 
out,  the  British  were  able  to  enlist  their  old  enemies  of  the  Sikh  army  by 
the  thousand  to  put  down  the  rebels  of  Delhi  and  Oude. 

THE  IRISH  FAMINE. 

Sir  Robert  Peel's  later  years  of  ofifice  as  Prime  Minister  of  England 
(1845-6)  were  made  unhappy  by  a  domestic  calamity  of  appalling  vio- 
lence— the  the  dreadful  potato  famine  in  Ireland.  In  other  countries  the 
complete  destruction  of  the  potato  crop  by  blight  in  two  successive  years 
would  have  caused  nothing  more  than  serious  inconvenience.  But  in 
Ireland  half  the  nation  depended  on  the  root.  The  population  had  been 
multiplying  with  great  rapidity  ;  in  thirty  years  it  had  risen  from  five  to 
eight  millions,  and  this  not  owing  to  flourishing  trade  or  manufactures, 
or  to  any  great  increase  in  the  amount  of  land  cultivated.  The  landlords 
had  been  permitting  their  tenants  to  cut  up  their  farms  into  smaller  and 
smaller  patches,  till  an  average  holding  did  not  sufiice  to  support  its 
occupier,  who  had  to  make  up  the  deficit  by  seeking  harvest  work  in 
England  during  the  summer.     Several  millions  of  people  were  living  on 


WtK^^KISf^" 

^^^^H|HHQ|0Vv-  6 

HK^' 

§^^^t 

m 

n 

r 

1 

fH^H^^^i 

r 

^ 

n 


■f) 


■n 


X 


O 

a-, 
I 


STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS.  29 1 

these  wretched  patches  of  ground,  always  on  the  edge  of  starvation,  and 
sustained  only  by  their  potatoes.  On  such  an  indigent  population  two 
years  of  blight  brought  absolute  famine.  Before  the  disaster  was  fully 
realized  thousands  had  perished  from  actual  hunger,  or  from  the  fevers 
and  dysentery  following  bad  and  insufficient  food.  The  workhouses  were 
crammed  till  they  could  hold  no  more,  and  out-door  relief  did  not  yet 
exist  in  Ireland.  Far  too  late  the  Government  began  to  establish  public 
soup-kitchens,  and  pour  in  food  of  all  kinds.  But  it  was  long  before 
relief  could  penetrate  to  out-of-the-way  districts,  and  the  famine  was 
prolonged  for  many  months. 

ABOLITION    OF   THE   CORN   LAWS. 

Sir  Robert  Peel,  deeply  impressed  by  the  horrors  of  the  situation, 
came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  best  remedy  would  be  the  abolition  of 
the  protective  duties  on  home-grown  corn,  which  rendered  difficult  in 
such  crises  the  importation  of  foreign  food.  After  much  thought,  he  re- 
solved to  introduce  a  bill  providing  for  the  abolition  of  the  Corn  Laws  in 
1849,  and  introducing  for  the  three  intervening  years  a  low  scale  of 
duties.  This  bold  step  caused  immediate  division  in  the  Tory  camp. 
The  great  land-owners,  who  formed  such  a  large  and  powerful  section 
of  the  party,  were  convinced  that  free  trade  in  corn  meant  the  ruin  of 
English  agriculture,  and  many  of  them  resolved  to  follow  Peel  no 
longer.  Several  of  his  colleagues  in  the  Cabinet  resigned,  and  many 
scores  of  members  in  the  Commons  announced  that  they  should  vote 
against  their  great  chief's  bill.  The  discontented  faction  was  headed  by 
Lord  George  Bentinck  and  Benjamin  Disraeli,  the  latter  of  whom  now 
first  appeared  prominently  in  politics.  He  was  the  son  of  a  Jewish  man 
of  letters,  and  had  hitherto  been  regarded  as  little  more  than  an  ingen- 
ious charlatan,  though  his  somewhat  bombastic  and  turgid  novels  showed 
plenty  of  cleverness  and  wit.  Now,  by  organizing  the  opponents  of 
Peel  into  a  solid  body,  he  showed  that  he  could  do  something  in  prac- 
tical politics. 

BREAK-UP  OF  THE  TORY  PARTY. 

The  repeal  of  the  Corn  Laws  was  carried  by  Peel  only  with  the  as- 
sistance of  the  votes  of  his  opponents,  the  Whigs,  by  T,T,y  votes  to  240, 
the  minority  including  two-thirds    of  the  Tory   party    (May    16,  1S46). 

Two  months  later  the   Protectionists   took  their  revenge  on  their  former 

i6 


292  STORY  OF  ONK  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

chief  by  unitiiiL^  with  the  Whigs  to  throw  out  a  bill  intended  to  put  down 
agrarian  crime  in  Ireland  (July,  1846).  Peel  at  once  resigned.  His  en- 
licrhtened  and  couraeeous  action  with  regard  to  the  Corn  Laws  had  not 
only  doomed  him  to  sit  in  opposition  for  the  rest  of  his  life,  but  had  hope- 
lessly broken  up  the  Conservative  party.  It  was  now  divided  into  two 
irreconcilable  sections,  for  Peel  could  not  forgive  the  rebels  who  had 
turned  him  out  of  office,  while  the  Protectionists  looked  upon  him  as  a 
traitor,  who  had  cast  away  one  of  the  main  planks  of  the  party  platform. 
Such  hard  words  had  passed  between  them  that  they  could  not  easily 
forofive  each  other.  Hence  It  is  not  strangfe  that  the  Conservatives  were 
destined  never  to  enjoy  a  real  Parliamentary  majority  again  for  nearly 
thirty  years. 

Meanwhile  the  Whigs  returned  to  office  under  Lord  John  Russell, 
the  introducer  of  the  Reform  Bill  of  1832,  an  adroit  party  politician,  full 
of  buoyant  self-confidence,  but  not  a  man  of  any  great  mark  or  original- 
ity. Palmerston,  a  much  more  notable  figure,  resumed  his  place  at  the 
Foreign  Office,  which  he  was  now  to  hold  without  any  appreciable  break 
for  twenty  years  more,  till  his  death  in  1865.  The  new  government  had 
to  take  over  two  troublesome  legacies  from  their  predecessors,  the  Irish 
famine  and  the  still  lingering  Chartist  agitation. 

EMIGRATION    FROM    IRELAND. 

In  dealing  with  the  former  they  did  not  show  themselves  much  more 
effective  than  the  Conservatives.  There  was  still  a  vast  mortality  from 
fever  and  dysentery  in  1846,  which  might  have  been  prevented  by 
really  active  measures  of  relief  In  the  following  year,  when  the  stress 
of  the  famine  was  over,  the  Irish  landlords  tried  to  free  themselves  from 
the  danger  of  such  another  disaster  by  suddenly  reversing  their  former 
policy  of  multiplying  small  tenants  on  diminutive  holdings.  They  be- 
gan at  once  to  consolidate  the  small  farms  into  large  ones  by  evicting 
their  weakest  and  poorest  tenants.  This  process  was  carried  out  in 
many  cases  with  inconsiderate  haste  and  reckless  cruelty,  families  which 
had  been  brought  low  by  the  famine  being  cast  out  on  the  roadside  by 
thousands.  The  greater  part  of  them  ultimately  struggled  across  the 
Atlantic  to  the  United  States.  The  policy  was  the  correct  one  from  the 
point  of  view  of  economy,  but  it  was  worked  out  with  inexcusable  disre- 
gard for  the  sufferings  of  the  evicted. 


STORY    OF   ONE    HUNURED    YEARS.  293 

SMITH   O'BRIEN'S   INSURRECTION. 

The  general  indignation  felt  for  the  clearances  of  1847  was  the  main 
cause  of  the  Irish  rising  of  1848.  A  large  body  of  O'Connell's  former 
followers  had  some  years  before  seceded  from  him,  because  they  insisted 
that  armed  rebellion  was  justifiable,  while  he  had  been  all  for  peaceful 
agitation.  Now  they  struck  their  blow,  and  proved  themselves  (July 
1848)  utterly  unable  to  do  anything  serious.  Smith  O'Brien,  an  enthusi- 
astic and  well-meaning  member  of  Parliament,  was  their  chosen  leader, 
and  proved  a  most  incompetent  general  and  organizer.  He  collected 
2000  armed  men,  but  his  campaign  ended  in  a  ludicrous  fiasco,  the 
"Army  of  the  Irish  Republic"  being  dispersed  by  fifty  constables  after 
a  scuffle  in  a  cabbage-garden  near  Bonlagh,  in  Tipperary.  Smith 
O'Brien  and  the  other  chiefs  were  tried  and  condemned  for  high  treason, 
but  the  Government  wisely  and  mercifully  gave  them  no  further  punish- 
ment than  a  few  years  deportation  to  the  Colonies,  and  granted  them 
"  tickets-of-leave  "  long  ere  their  sentence  was  out. 

END  OF  CHARTISM. 

The  end  of  the  Chartist  agitation  had  fallen  a  few  weeks  before  the 
Irish  rising,  and  had  been  equally  ignominious.  The  London  Chartists, 
having  resolved  to  march  on  the  Houses  of  Parliament  and  present  a 
monster  petition  for  the  "six  points,"  were  forbidden  to  approach  West- 
minster. They  declared  their  intention  of  forcing  their  way  thither,  but 
the  Government  called  out  the  troops,  and  200,000  special  constables 
answered  the  appeal  for  civil  aid.  Hearing  of  this  army  ready  to  meet 
them,  the  Chartists  very  wisely,  but  rather  tamely,  went  home,  after  send- 
ing their  vast  petition  to  the  Commons  in  three  cabs.  The  fact  that 
April  14,  1848,  was  a  very  rainy  day  seems  to  have  had  a  good  deal  to 
do  with  this  absurd  fiasco. 

THE   SPANISH    MARRIAGES. 

Meantime  France  was  steadily  verging  toward  another  revolution. 
Discontent  with  Louis  Philippe  was  growing  apace.  Louis  Napoleon 
escaped  trom  the  prison  fortress  of  Ham  in  May,  1846,  and  renewed  his 
intrigues  with  some  success.  The  scandalous  conduct  of  Louis  Philippe 
in  the  matter  of  the  "  Spanish  marriages  "  alienated  the  sympathy  and 
support  ot   Great  Britain  and  caused  much  criticism  at  home. 


294  STOKV  OK  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

French  influence  was  now  preponderant  in  Spain,  and  Louis  Philippe 
determined  to  seize  the  opportunity  of  gratifying  his  dynastic  ambition. 
The  great  question  of  the  day  was  to  find  a  husband  for  the  young 
Queen.  The  interests  of  England  were  directly  opposed  to  any  mar- 
riage which  might  give  the  Spanish  crown  to  a  French  prince.  Louis 
Philippe  did  not  venture  to  propose  a  direct  alliance  with  Isabella,  but  he 
determined  to  find  a  husband  for  her  who  would  not  be  likely  to  have 
children,  and  to  marry  her  younger  sister,  Maria  Louisa,  to  his  own  son, 
the  Duke  of  Montpensier. 

This  scandalously  immoral  scheme  had  the  complete  approval  of 
Christina.  In  1845  Louis  Philippe  had  promised  Queen  Victoria  in  a 
personal  interview  at  Eu,  that  his  son's  marriage  should  not  take  place 
until  Isabella  had  given  birth  to  an  heir.  But  the  King's  li(Mior  was 
weaker  than  his  ambition.  On  the  loth  of  October,  1846,  the  .Spanish 
Queen  was  married  to  her  cousin,  bVancis  of  Assis,  a  husband  who  sat- 
isfied the  required  conditions,  and  on  the  very  same  day  the  Duke  of 
Montpensier  married  Maria  Louisa.  Public  opinion  in  Europe  was  pro- 
foundly scandalized  by  a  transaction  which  must  always  remain  a  blot  upon 
the  character  both  of  Louis  Philippe  and  of  M.  Guizot.  England  was 
bitterly  aggrieved,  and  although  no  open  rupture  took  place,  die  English 
Government  was  completely  alienated  from  the  Orleanist  dynasty,  which 
thus  lost  its  firmest  support  at  a  time  when  it  was  most  in  need  of  it. 
And  the  intrigue  had  not  even  the  scanty  justification  of  success.  Isabella 
gave  birth  to  a  daughter  in  1851,  whose  paternity  was  more  than  doubt- 
ful, and  before  that  time  Louis  Philippe  had  forfeited  the  French  throne. 

DISCONTENT   IN    FRANCE. 

Durincr  the  winter  of  1847-48  numerous  political  reform  banquets 
were  held  throughout  France  ;  and  the  omission  of  the  King's  health 
from  the  list  of  toasts  on  these  occasions  was  a  circumstance  that  added 
much  to  the  jealousy  with  which  these  displays  were  regarded  by  the 
Government.  The  leaders  of  the  opposition  having  announced  that  re- 
form banquets  would  be  held  throughout  France  on  the  22d  of  February, 
1848,  Washington's  birthday,  on  the  evening  preceding  the  22d,  the  Ad- 
ministration forbade  the  intended  meeting  in  Paris,  and  made  extensive 
military  preparations  to  suppress  it  if  it  were  attempted,  and  to  crush 
at  once  any  attempt  at  insurrection.     In  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  then 


1856— SLAVES  WORKING  ON  A  SOUTHERN  PLANTATION 


STORY    OF   ONE    HUNDRED    VEAKS.  297 

in  session,  this  arbitrary  measure  of  government  was  warmly  discussed, 
when  tlie  opposition  members,  consenting  to  give  up  tlie  meeting  for 
the  morrow,  concurred  in  the  plan  of  moving  an  impeachment  of  Min- 
isters, with  the  expectation  of  obtaining  either  a  change  of  Cabinet,  or 
a  dissolution  of  the  Chamber  and  a  new  election,  which  would  test 
the  sense  of   the  nation. 

BEGINNING   THE   REVOLUTION. 

On  the  morning  of  the  2 2d  the  opposition  papers  announced  that 
the  banquet  would  be  deferred,  when  the  orders  for  the  troops  of  the 
line  to  occupy  the  place  of  intended  meeting  were  countermanded,  and 
pickets  only  were  stationed  in  a  few  places  ;  but  no  serious  disturb- 
ances were  anticipated,  either  by  the  Ministry  or  its  opponents.  The 
announcement  of  the  opposition  journals,  however,  came  too  late  ;  and 
at  noon  a  large  concourse,  chiefly  of  the  working  classes,  had  assembled 
around  the  Church  of  the  Madelene,  where  the  procession  was  to  have 
been  organized.  But  the  multitude  exhibited  no  symptoms  of  disorder, 
and  were  dispersed  by  the  municipal  cavalry  without  any  loss  of  life.  In 
the  evening,  however,  disturbances  began.  Gunsmiths'  shops  were 
broken  open,  barricades  were  formed,  lamps  extinguished,  the  guards 
were  attacked,  the  streets  were  filled  with  troops,  and  appearances  indi- 
cated a  sanguinary  strife  on  the  morrow. 

At  an  early  hour  on  Wednesday,  February  23d,  crowds  again  ap- 
peared in  the  streets,  barricades  were  erected,  and  some  skirmishing  en- 
sued, in  which  a  few  persons  were  killed.  Numbers  of  the  National 
Guard  also  made  their  appearance,  and  a  portion  of  them  having  de- 
clared for  reform,  sent  their  colonel  to  the  King  to  acquaint  His  Majesty 
with  their  wishes.  He  immediately  acceded  to  their  requests,  dismissed 
the  Guizot  Cabinet,  and  requested  Count  Mole  to  form  a  new  ministry. 
This  measure  produced  a  momentary  calm,  but  the  rioters  continued  to 
traverse  the  streets,  often  attacking,  and  sometimes  disarming,  the  mu- 
nicipal guards.  Between  10  and  1 1  o'clock  in  the  evening,  a  crowd  pass- 
ing the  office  of  Foreign  Affairs,  was  suddenly  fired  upon  by  the  troops, 
with  fatal  effect.  The  people  fled  in  consternation,  but  their  thirst  for 
revenge  was  aroused,  and  the  cry,  "  To  arms  !  Down  with  the  assas- 
sins!  Down  with  Louis  Philippe!  Down  with  the  Bourbons!"  re- 
sounded throughout  Paris. 


298  STORY    OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

THE  KING'S   SURRENDER. 

The  attempt  to  establish  a  Mole  administration  having  failed,  the 
King,  late  at  night,  sent  for  M.  Thiers,  and  entrusted  to  him  the  forma- 
tion of  a  ministry  that  should  be  acceptable  to  the  people  ;  and  on  the 
following  morning,  the  24th,  a  proclamation  to  the  citizens  of  Paris  an- 
nounced that  M.  Thiers  and  Odillon  Barrot  had  been  appointed  ministers  ; 
that  orders  had  been  given  the  troops  to  cease  firing  and  retire  to  their 
quarters  ;  that  the  Chamber  would  be  dissolved  and  an  appeal  made  to 
the  people,  and  that  General  Lamoriciere  had  been  appointed  com- 
mandant of  the  National  Guards.  The  order  to  the  troops  to  retire, 
causing  the  resignation  of  their  commander,  Marshal  Bugeaud,  after 
a  protest  against  the  measure,  was  a  virtual  surrender  on  the  part  of  the 
Government  of  the  means  of  defence  ;  and  the  King  and  royal  family 
soon  found  themselves  at  the  mercy  of  an  excited  populace.  The  troops 
quietly  allowed  themselves  to  be  disarmed  by  the  mob,  who  then,  to 
the  number  of  20,000,  and  accompanied  by  the  National  Guard,  di- 
rected their  course  to  the  Palace  Royal  and  the  Tuileries,  and  demanded 
the  abdication  of  the  King.  In  the  course  of  the  day  the  King  signed 
an  abdication  in  favor  of  his  grandson,  the  young  Count  of  Paris  ;  but 
before  this  fact  was  generally  known  the  armed  populace  broke  into 
the  palace,  made  a  bonfire  of  the  royal  carriages  and  furniture,  and 
after  having  carried  the  throne  of  the  state  reception  room  in  triumph 
through  the  streets,  burned  that  also.  Meanwhile  the  ex-King  and 
Queen  escaped  to  St.  Cloud,  whence  they  pursued  their  way  to  Ver- 
sailles, and  thence  to  Dreux,  from  which  latter  place  they  escaped  in 
disguise  to  England,  whither  they  were  followed  by  M.  Guizot  and  other 
members  of  the  late  ministry. 

THE   REPUBLIC   PROCLAIMED. 

On  the  day  of  the  King's  abdication  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  as- 
sembled, but  being  overwhelmed  by  the  crowd,  the  greatest  confusion 
prevailed,  and  amid  shouts  of  "No  King!  Long  live  the  Republic!" 
the  members  of  the  provisional  government  were  named  and  adopted  by 
popular  acclamation.  Although  a  majority  of  the  deputies  seemed 
opposed  to  the  establishment  of  a  republic,  and  it  was  by  no  means 
certain  that  there  was  any  great  party  out  of  Paris  in  its  favor,  every 
attempt  to  adjourn  the  question  was  the   signal   for  renewed  shouts  and 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  299 

disorder;  and  amid  the  turbulent  demonstrations  of  the  Parisian  popu- 
lace the  French  Republic  was  adopted  and  proclaimed  to  the  nation. 
Royalty  had  vanished  almost  without  a  struggle — blown  away  by  the 
breath  of  an  urban  tumult — and  the  strangest  revolution  of  modern 
times  was  consummated. 

The  leadmg  member  of  the  provisional  government  was  M.  Lamar- 
tine,  to  whom  belongs  the  renown  of  saving  the  country  from  almost 
immediate  anarchy.  By  his  noble  and  fervid  eloquence  the  passions 
of  the  mob  were  calmed,  and  by  his  prompt  and  judicious  measures, 
among  the  first  of  which  was  the  declaration  of  the  abolition  of  capital  pun- 
ishment for  political  offenses,  tranquillity  and  confidence  were  at  once  re- 
stored. On  the  26th  the  Bank  of  France  re-opened,  the  public  departments 
resumed  their  duties  ;  and  with  unparalleled  unanimity  the  army,  the 
clergy,  the  press  and  the  people,  in  the  provinces  as  well  as  in  Paris, 
immediately  gave  In  their  adhesion  to  the  new  Republic. 

RISE  OF  THE  MOB, 

On  the  15th  of  May  the  National  Assembly  was  surrounded  by  the 
populace,  led  by  Barbes,  Planqui,  Hubert  and  other  Communist  leaders, 
who,  after  having  driven  the  deputies  from  their  seats,  and  assumed  the 
functions  of  government,  proclaimed  themselves  the  National  Executive 
Committee,  and  through  Barbes,  one  of  their  number,  declared  that  a 
contribution  of  1,000,000,000  francs  should  be  levied  on  the  rich  for  the 
benefit  of  the  poor;  that  a  tax  of  another  1,000,000,000  francs  should 
be  raised  for  the  benefit  of  Poland  ;  that  the  National  Assembly  should 
be  dissolved,  and  finally,  that  the  guillotine  should  be  put  In  operation 
against  the  enemies  of  the  country.  But  In  the  meantime  the  National 
Guard  was  called  out,  the  rioters  were  soon  dispersed,  their  leaders 
arrested,  and  the  provisional  government  reinstated. 

Owing  to  the  fear  of  another  demonstration  against  the  Govern- 
ment, the  full  command  of  all  the  troops  was  given  to  General  Cavalg- 
nac,  the  Minister  of  War  ;  and  all  the  approaches  to  the  National  As- 
sembly and  all  ministers'  apartments  were  strongly  guarded.  In  June, 
the  Government  finding  the  burdens  imposed  on  the  public  treasury  too 
heavy  to  be  borne,  determined  to  send  out  of  Paris  to  the  provinces 
about  12,000  of  the  workmen  then  unprofitably  employed  In  the  national 
workshops.      This  was  the  signal   of  alarm.      Disturbances  began  on  the 


300  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

evening  of  the  2  2d  ;  on  the  23d  the  most  active  preparations  were  made 
by  both  parties  for  the  coming  contest,  and  some  blood  was  shed  at  the 
barricades  erected  by  the  insurgents.  At  i  o'clock  on  Saturday  morn- 
ing, the  24th,  General  Cavaignac  declared  Paris  in  a  state  of  siege,  and 
the  strueele  beean  in  earnest.  From  that  hour  until  4  o'clock  in  the 
afternoon,  when  the  insurgents  were  driven  from  the  left  bank  of  the 
Seine,  the  musketry  and  cannonade  were  incessant,  and  Paris  was  a  vast 
battlefield.  The  fight  was  renewed  at  an  early  hour  on  Sunday  morn- 
ing, and  continued  during  most  of  the  day,  and  it  was  not  till  noon  on 
Monday  that  the  struggle  was  terminated  by  the  unconditional  surrender 
of  the  last  body  of  the  insurgents.  The  number  killed  and  wounded  in 
this  insurrection — by  far  the  most  terrible  that  had  ever  desolated  Paris 
— was  never  known  ;  but  5000  is  not  a  high  estimate. 

ORGANIZING  THE  REPUBLIC. 

The  e.xertions  and  success  of  General  Cavaignac  in  defending  the 
Government  procured  for  him  a  vote  of  thanks  from  the  Assembly,  and 
the  unanimous  appointment  of  temporary  Chief  Executive  of  the  Nation, 
with  the  power  of  appointing  his  Ministers.  Many  of  the  leaders  of  the 
insurrection,  among  them  Louis  Blanc  and  Caussidiere,  fled  from  the 
country  ;  a  small  number  of  those  taken  with  arms  in  their  hands  were 
condemned  to  transportation  ;  but  the  great  majority,  after  a  short  con- 
finement, were  set  at  liberty.  The  Assembly  in  the  meantime  proceeded 
with  its  task  of  constructing  the  new  constitution,  which  was  adopted  on 
the  4th  of  November,  1848,  by  a  vote  of  739  in  its  favor  and  30  in  oppo- 
sition. It  declared  that  the  French  Nation  had  adopted  the  Republican 
form  of  government,  with  one  Legislative  Assembly,  and  that  the  execu- 
tive power  should  be  vested  in  a  President,  to  be  elected  by  universal 
suffrage,  for  a  term  of  four  years.  Its  principles  were  declared  to  be 
liberty,  equality  and  fraternity ;  and  the  basis  on  which  it  rested — 
family,  labor,  property  and  public  order, 

LOUIS  NAPOLEON,  PRESIDENT  OF  FRANCE. 

The  Republican  candidate  for  President  was  Cavaignac,  who  had 
given  conclusive  proofs  of  his  honesty  and  of  his  ability  to  rule.  But  he 
had  alienated  the  socialists  by  his  conduct  in  the  June  rising  ;  he  was 
regarded  with  jealousy  by  many  of  his  fellow-ofificers  ;  and  his  very  devo- 


STORY   OF   ONE   HUNDRED   YEARS.  30I 

tion  to  the  republic  told  against  him  among  those  who  cared  less  for 
Democratic  equality  than  for  the  protection  of  their  property.  His  most 
formidable  rival  was  Louis  Napoleon,  who  had  been  elected  to  the 
Assembly  in  September  by  five  departments.  This  time  no  opposition 
was  made  to  his  return  to  France,  and  he  took  his  seat  as  Deputy  for  the 
Department  of  the  Seine.  Little  was  known  of  him  but  the  futile  con- 
spiracies of  .Strasburg  and  Boulogne,  but  his  name  was  a  charm  to 
conjure  with.  Thanks  to  Thiers  and  other  writers  the  memory  of  the 
first  Napoleon  had  come  to  be  almost  worshipped  in  France.  The  peas- 
ants and  soldiers  believed  that  the  rule  of  another  Napoleon  would  secure 
their  prosperity  and  their  glory.  The  Orleanists  also  supported  him,  in 
the  belief  that  they  could  use  him  as  their  instrument  to  effect  the  res- 
toration of  the  July  monarchy,  but  events  proved  that  their  confidence 
in  his  incapacity  were  ill-founded.  Among  the  other  candidates  were 
Ledru-RoUin,  Raspail,  the  champion  of  the  advanced  Socialists,  and  La- 
martine.  whose  popularity  had  declined  as  rapidly  as  it  had  arisen.  From 
the  first  commencement  of  the  voting  the  result  was  a  foregone  conclu- 
sion. The  recorded  votes  numbered  nearly  seven  millions  and  a  half. 
Of  these  Louis  Napoleon  received  5,434,226,  and  Cavaignac  only 
1,443,107.  Ledru-Rollin  came  next  with  370, 119,  and  the  other  candi- 
dates received  hardly  any  support.  On  December  20th  the  President 
took  the  prescribed  oath  to  observe  the  constitution,  and  entered  upon 
the  official  residence  in  the  palace  of  the  Elysee. 

AFFAIRS  IN  GERMANY. 

The  history  of  Germany  is  almost  a  complete  blank  between  the 
revolutionary  movements  of  1830  and  1848.  The  Bund,  the  only  repre- 
sentative of  German  unity,  was  a  hopeless  inert  mass  which  did  nothing 
but  oppose  a  passive  resistance  to  reform.  The  sub-division  into  innumer- 
able petty  States  was  maintained  by  the  overwhelming  influence  of  Russia, 
which  was  always  exerted  to  prevent  an  aggrandizement  of  Prussia  or 
Austria.  These  two  States,  which  absorbed  most  of  the  material  strength 
of  Germany,  regarded  each  other  with  a  jealousy  that  made  the  Czar 
the  necessary  arbitrator  between  them,  hi  Austria,  Francis  I  had  been 
succeeded  in  1835  by  his  son,  Ferdinand  I,  but  the  change  of  rulers 
only  gave  greater  power  to  Metternich,  who  continued  with  cynical 
obstinacy  to  maintain  the  antiquated  system  of  government,  which  was 


302  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

ready  to  fall  at  the  first  touch.  In  1837  the  death  of  William  IV  sepa- 
rated England  from  Hanover  and  the  latter  crown,  from  which  females 
were  excluded,  fell  to  Ernest  Augustus,  Duke  of  Cumberland.  The  first 
act  of  the  new  King  was  to  abolish  the  Constitution  of  1833,  and  to  dis- 
miss seven  Gottingen  professors  who  protested  against  the  arbitrary 
measure.  In  1840  Frederick  William  IV  succeeded  his  father  in  Prussia, 
but  he  did  little  to  alter  the  system  that  had  pervaded  in  Berlin  since 
1 815.  The  last  relic  of  Polish  independence  was  done  away  with  in  1846, 
when  the  Republic  of  Krakau,  on  the  pretext  of  insurrection,  was 
incorporated  with  Austria. 

THE  REVOLUTIONARY  ERA. 

In  March,  1848,  the  revolutionary  wave  broke  over  Germany  with 
such  force  that  resistance  was  hardly  dreamed  of  Rulers  hastened  to 
secure  their  thrones  by  granting  all  the  demands  of  their  subjects,  and 
by  admitting  to  office  the  men  who  had  hitherto  been  the  prominent 
leaders  of  opposition.  The  Constitution  of  Baden,  March  3d,  was  the 
model  which  was  copied  in  the  other  States.  Its  chief  points  were  the 
freedom  of  the  press,  trial  by  jury,  political  equality  of  all  creeds,  respon- 
sibility of  Ministers,  abolition  of  feudal  obligations,  and  equal  taxation. 
Everywhere  the  people  agitated  for  these  or  similar  reforms,  and  every- 
where they  were  granted.  No  day  passed  without  the  appearance  of  a 
new  constitution.  In  Darmstadt,  Nassau,  Hesse-Cassel,  Oldenburg, 
Brunswick,  the  four  Hanse  Towns,  Weimar,  and  Wurtemburg,  the  out- 
lines of  the  story  are  so  similar  that  the  details  become  insignificant. 
Only  the  three  great  middle  States,  Saxony,  Bavaria  and  Hanover,  de- 
layed their  action  to  see  what  was  done  by  their  two  powerful  neighbors. 

The  news  of  the  events  in  Paris  was  enough  in  itself  to  overturn  the 
ill-cemented  edifice  of  the  Austrian  State.  The  Hungarians,  inspired  by 
the  eloquence  of  Kossuth,  clamored  for  an  independent  diet  and  dimin- 
ished taxes.  Similar  demands  were  made  in  Prague.  The  populace  of 
Vienna,  usually  so  contented  and  pleasure  loving,  demanded  the  dismissal 
of  Metternich.  Without  an  effort  at  resistance  the  famous  diplomatist 
fled  to  England,  and  the  Austrian  Government  was  left  to  the  direction 
of  the  mob.  The  feeble  Ferdinand  I  granted  freedom  to  the  press, 
allowed  the  formation  of  a  citizen  guard,  and  promised  a  libeial 
constitution. 


STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS.  303 

CONCESSIONS  IN  PRUSSIA. 

In  Prussia  Frederick  William  IV  offered  a  stubborn  resistance  to  the 
demands  for  constitutional  liberties  which  arrived  from  all  parts  of  his 
kingdom,  and  especially  from  the  Rhenish  provinces.  But  the  report  of 
the  occurrences  in  Vienna  led  to  formidable  disturbances  in  Berlin  and 
made  concessions  unavoidable.  On  March  1 7th  the  King  promised  free- 
dom to  the  press,  the  summons  of  a  Landtag  on  April  2d,  the  "  transfor- 
mation of  the  German  Confederation  (Statenbund)  into  a  Federal  State 
(Bundestat),"  and  the  incorporation  of  East  and  West  Prussia  and  Posen 
in  the  Bund.  Liberal  as  these  assurances  were  they  failed  to  satisfy  the 
people,  who  now  clamored  for  the  dismissal  of  the  soldiers  from  the 
town  and  the  formation  of  a  new  guard.  On  March  i8th  the  mob  came 
into  collision  with  the  troops,  barricades  were  raised,  and  for  fourteen 
hours  a  terrible  battle  was  waged  in  the  streets  of  Berlin.  At  last  the 
King  gave  way,  ordered  the  troops  to  withdraw,  dismissed  his  Ministry, 
and  granted  an  unconditional  amnesty  to  all  political  prisoners.  His 
brother  William,  Prince  of  Prussia,  who  was  regarded  as  a  leader  of  the 
reactionary  party,  departed  to  England.  From  this  moment  Frederick 
William  determined  to  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  Liberal  movement, 
and  thus  to  satisfy  the  party  which  desired  to  see  Prussia  at  the  head  of 
a  united  Germany.  He  assumed  the  German  colors  and  issued  a  procla- 
mation, in  which  he  undertook,  as  a  constitutional  King,  to  be  the  "  leader 
of  a  free  and  new-born  German  Nation  "  (March  21st).  Two  days  later 
he  had  to  attend  with  bare  head  the  funeral  of  the  183  victims  of  the  iSth 
of  March.  But  the  memory  of  that  day  stood  between  him  and  the 
realization  of  his  new  aims,  and  Prussia  had,  for  the  moment,  lost  all 
popularity  and  respect  in  Germany.  Besides  domestic  revolutions,  Ger- 
many had  a  difficult  question  to  deal  with  in  the  relations  of  the  Duchies 
of  Schleswigf  and  Holstein  with  Denmark.  Both  contained  a  largfe  Ger- 
man  population,  and  Holstein  was  a  member  of  the  Bund.  Both  were 
hostile  to  Danish  rule,  and  were  indignant  at  the  attempts  to  destroy 
their   independent  nationality  and  to  incorporate  them  with   Denmark. 

THE  OPPRESSION  OF  ITALY, 

No  part  of  Europe  was  so  quiet  and  at  the  same  time  so  profoundly 
discontented  as  Italy  in  the  first  years  of  the  fifth  decade  of  the  century. 
Austrian  rule  pressed  like  a  leaden  weight  upon  the  provinces  of  Lorn- 


3t>4  STORY   OK   ONE    HUNDRED   YEARS. 

bardy  and  Venetia.  A  powerful  army,  under  Marshal  Radetsky,  stood 
ready  to  crush  the  slightest  symptom  of  revolt.  The  press  was  subject 
to  the  most  rigorous  censorship,  and  so  searching-  was  the  system  of 
espionage  that  no  one  ventured  to  breathe  a  word  of  complaint.  The 
upper  classes  were  purposely  encouraged  to  lead  a  licentious  life,  that 
they  might  lose  all  thought  of  a  political  liberty.  In  the  other  provinces 
Austrian  influence  was  supreme,  and  was  employed  to  support  the 
arbitrary  government  of  the  Princes.  In  Naples  and  Sicily  Ferdinand  II 
(1830-1859)  crushed  his  subjects  under  a  despotism  of  terror.  In  the 
Papal  States  Gregory  XVI  (i  831-1846)  maintained  the  worst  of  all  forms 
of  government,  the  absolutism  of  the  clergy.  Leopold  II,  of  Tuscany, 
was  personally  benevolent  and  well-intentioned,  but  did  not  venture  to 
depart  from  the  system  of  rule  prescribed  from  Vienna.  The  lesser 
rulers  of  Modena,  Parma  and  Lucca,  were  the  powerless  vassals  of 
Austria.  In  Piedmont  Charles  Albert  had  never  ventured  to  return  to 
the  liberal  principles  of  his  youth. 

This  lethargy  was  suddenly  interrupted  from  a  wholly  unexpected 
quarter.  In  June,  1S46,  Gregory  XVI  died,  and  the  choice  of  the  con- 
clave fell  upon  one  of  the  youngest  Cardinals,  Mastai  Ferretti,  who  took 
the  name  of  Pius  IX.  The  new  Pope  was  chosen  mainly  on  account  of 
his  feeble  health,  but  he  was  destined  to  the  longest  and  one  of  the  most 
eventful  pontificates  recorded  in  history.  Eager  to  obtain  popularity, 
Pius  IX  signalized  his  accession  by  reforming  measures  which  made  a 
profound  impression  in  Europe.  He  issued  an  amnesty  for  all  political 
offenders,  recalled  the  exiles,  and  appointed  a  council  to  aid  him  in  the 
Government.  Italy  resounded  with  cries  of  "  Evviva  Pio  Nono,"  and  the 
Pope  became,  for  a  brief  period,  the  idol  of  his  countrymen. 

AWAKENING   OF  THE   ITALIANS. 

The  example  of  the  Pope  naturally  exercised  great  influence  in  the 
other  Italian  States.  Leopold  of  Tuscany  hastened  to  conciliate  the 
people  with  administrative  reforms.  Charles  Louis  of  Lucca  was  com- 
pelled to  make  similar  concessions,  but  he  showed  his  personal  antipathy 
by  selling  his  duchy  to  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany  and  retiring  from 
public  life.  Intense  popular  indignation  was  aroused  by  the  settlement 
of  the  succession  in  Parma  on  the  death  of  Maria  Louisa  (December, 
1847).     The  Congress  of  Vienna  had  arranged  that  if  she  died  childless 


z 

< 
> 

m 
Z 

z 

w 

IX, 

z 

Q 
W 

z 

w 

o 

J 
-J 
w 
> 


w 
J 
O 
Qi 

w 

a, 
I 


STORY    OF   ONE    HUNDRED   YEARS.  307 

Parma  should  be  given  to  the  Duke  of  Lucca,  whose  duchy  was  to  be 
transferred  to  Tuscany,  while  the  latter  was  to  cede  certain  districts  to 
the  Duke  of  Modena.  This  elaborate  arrangement  based  altogether 
upon  dynastic  interests,  without  any  regard  to  the  wishes  of  the  people 
concerned,  was  now  carried  out.  Riots  ensued,  and  Francis  V  of  Mo- 
dena invited  the  Austrians  to  occupy  his  duchy.  In  Southern  Italy  the 
movement  was  more  violent  in  proportion  to  the  evils  it  had  to  combat. 
Sicily  threw  off  the  Neapolitan  yoke,  and  a  provisional  government  was 
established  at  Palermo,  under  Riggiero  Settimo  (January  24,  1848).  A 
rising  in  Naples  forced  Ferdinand  II  to  dismiss  his  ministers  and  to  grant 
a  liberal  constitution  (February  loth).  The  scruples  of  Charles  Albert 
were  removed  when  he  found  himself  on  the  same  side  as  the  Pope, 
and  early  in  1848  he  drew  up  a  constitution  for  Piedmont,  the  Statuto 
Fondamentale,  which  was  issued  on  March  4th.  In  Tuscany  representa- 
tive institutions  were  granted  on  February  17th,  and  the  revolution  in 
Paris  induced  Pius  IX  to  take  the  final  step,  to  which  his  previous  meas- 
ures had  obviously  tended.  A  ministry  was  formed  under  Cardinal  An- 
tonelli,  in  which  for  the  first  time  the  lay  element  predominated,  and  a 
constitution  was  promulgated  on  March  14th.  This  established  two 
chambers — one  composed  of  nominees  of  the  Pope,  and  the  other  of 
popular  representatives  ;  but  the  final  decisions  on  all  matters  was  still 
reserved  to  the  College  of  Cardinals. 

o 

THROWING  OFF  THE  AUSTRIAN  YOKE. 

When  the  news  arrived  of  the  Viennese  rising  of  March  13,  1848, 
and  the  flight  of  Metternich,  the  flame  of  revolt  at  once  broke  out  in  the 
northern  provinces.  The  lead  was  taken  by  Milan,  where  the  citizens 
erected  barricades,  and  for  four  days  carried  on  a  desperate  contest 
against  the  Austrian  troops.  Radetsky  might  have  destroyed  the  cit\^  by 
a  bombardment,  but  he  was  afraid  lest  a  sudden  advance  of  the  Sardi- 
nian army  might  cut  off  his  communications  with  Austria.  On  the  even- 
ing of  the  2 2d  he  quitted  Milan  and  retreated  towards  the  famous  Quad- 
rilateral formed  by  the  fortresses  of  Peschiera,  Mantua,  Legnago  and 
Verona.  His  retreat  was  the  signal  for  a  general  rising.  The  Duke  of 
Parma  fled  without  striking  a  blow.  One  after  another — Monza,  Como, 
Bergamo,  Brescia  and  Cremona — threw  off  the  rule  of  Austria.  Venice 
was  tamely  resigned  by  Counts  Palff)-  and  Zichy,  and  the  citizens  restored 


30S  STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

the  Republic  under  the  presidency  of  Daniele  Manin.  Francis  V  of  Mo- 
dena  was  driven  from  his  duchy.  Meanwhile  Charles  Albert  had  taken 
a  decisive  step.  He  declared  war  against  Austria,  crossed  the  Ticino 
with  his  army  (March  25th),  and  proceeded  to  pursue  the  retreating 
Austrians.  Radetsky  now  took  up  his  quarters  at  Verona  and  stood 
upon  the  defensive.  Popular  enthusiasm  compelled  the  remaining  gov- 
ernments of  the  peninsula  to  espouse  the  national  cause.  The  Grand 
Duke  of  Tuscany  ordered  his  troops  to  march  to  the  frontier.  Pius  IX, 
torn  by  his  conflicting  interests  as  an  Italian  Prince,  and  as  head  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  found  it  impossible  to  resist  the  general  im- 
pulse, and  the  Roman  army  was  dispatched  to  the  Po.  Even  Ferdinand  II 
did  not  yet  venture  to  obey  his  natural  inclinations.  The  Neapolitan  army 
set  out  under  Pepe,  the  fleet  was  sent  to  Ancona,  and  Charles  Albert 
was  assured  that  Naples  would  co-operate  actively  in  the  war  for  Italian 
independence.  But  it  was  afterwards  discovered  that  both  the  army  and 
the  fleet  had  received  secret  instructions  to  do  nothing  until  the  course 
of  events  had  enabled  the  King  to  decide  finally  on  his  course  of  action. 
Ferdinand's  insincerity  was  soon  made  manifest.  In  defiance  of  his 
solemn  oath  to  observe  the  constitution,  he  dissolved  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  before  it  had  time  to  meet,  formed  a  reactionary  ministry,  re- 
called his  army,  and  declared  a  complete  change  of  the  franchise.  In 
consequence  of  these  measures  the  Sicilians  declared  that  the  Bourbons 
had  forfeited  the  crown,  and  prepared  to  offer  the  crown  to  the  Duke  of 
Genoa,  the  second  son  of  Charles  Albert. 

THE   SUPPRESSION  OF  LOMBARDY. 

The  Sardinian  King  had  continued  for  some  time  to  retain  his  ad- 
vantage in  the  Lombard  war.  Radetsky  refused  to  be  drawn  from  his 
position  at  Verona  until  the  arrival  of  reinforcements  should  enable  him 
to  take  the  aggressive.  The  result  was  that  the  Sardinian  troops  were 
able  to  overrun  the  country  as  far  as  the  Adige,  and  a  m.omentary  re- 
pulse at  Santa  Lucia  (May  6th)  was  more  than  compensated  by  a  dis- 
tinguished success  at  Goito  (May  30th)  and  by  the  capture  of  Perchiera. 
Popular  votes  decreed  the  anne.xation  of  Lombardy,  Modena  and  Parma 
to  Sardinia.  That  these  bright  prospects  were  soon  overcrowded  was 
probably  due  to  the  error  of  Charles  Albert  himself  If  he  had  at  once 
advanced  against  Radetsky  at  the  end  of  March   he  might  have  finished 


STORY  OK  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  3O9 

the  war  at  one  blow.  But  he  was  airaid  of  the  NationaHsts,  who  might 
utilize  his  victories  to  his  own  disadvantage.  He  was  not  cordially  sup- 
ported by  the  other  rulers  of  the  peninsula,  and  he  trusted  that  English 
mediation  and  the  rising  in  Hungary  would  compel  Austria  to  cede  Lom- 
bardy  to  him  without  further  warfare.  His  hesitation  secured  the  suc- 
cess of  Radetsky,  whose  retreat,  instead  of  being  a  sign  of  weakness, 
was  a  masterly  stroke  of  policy.  Strengthened  by  reinforcements  under 
Welden,  he  suddenly  left  Verona,  captured  VIcenza,  Treviso  and  Padua, 
and  thus  secured  a  second  and  safer  line  of  communication  with  Austria. 
Turning  against  the  Piedmontese,  he  inflicted  a  crushing  defeat  upon 
them  at  Custozza  (July  25th).  Charles  Albert  retreated  to  Milan, 
closely  pursued  and  harassed  by  the  victorious  army.  Milan  capitulated 
without  striking  a  blow,  and  the  last  chance  of  retaining  any  hold  upon 
Lombardy  was  gone.  On  August  8th  Charles  Albert  signed  an  armis- 
tice by  which  he  surrendered  Peschiera  and  the  positions  outside  Lom- 
bardy, and  engaged  to  withdraw  the  ships  and  troops  that  had  been  sent 
to  the  assistance  of  Venice.  Lombardy  was  once  more  an  Austrian 
])rovince,  and  Radetsky  prepared  to  complete  his  work  by  laying  siege 
on  Venice. 

THE  POPE  FLEETS  FROM  ROME. 

Pius  IX  had  already  deserted  the  Italian  cause  when  he  discovered 
that  it  involved  him  in  open  war  with  Austria.  From  that  time  he  began 
to  think  more  of  his  duties  as  the  head  of  the  church  and  less  of  temporal 
Interests.  The  result  was  that  he  soon  lost  the  popularity  that  his 
Liberal  measures  had  given  him.  His  reforming  Ministry  naturally 
resigned  when  the  Pope  would  no  longer  assent  to  their  measures. 
Count  Rossi,  who  became  head  of  a  new  Ministry,  alienated  both  the 
Liberal  and  the  Reactionary  parties,  and  was  assassinated  on  November 
15th.  The  Pope  was  so  horrified  by  this  act  that  he  quitted  Rome  in 
disguise  (November  24th)  and  took  up  his  residence  at  Gaeta,  under  the 
protection  of  the  King  of  Naples.  The  greatest  excitement  prevailed 
when  the  news  of  his  departure  was  made  known.  The  Roman  Parlia- 
ment, which  had  met  on  the  day  of  Rossi's  death,  appointed  an  e.xecutive 
committee  of  three  persons,  and  ordered  the  election  of  a  Constituent 
Assembly.  The  Pope  contented  himself  with  issuing  one  brief  after 
another  to  declare  the  nullity  of  all  that  was  done  during  his  absence,  but 
did  nothing  to  strengthen  the  hands  of  the  Moderate  party,  who  were 


3IO  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRKD  YEARS. 

Still  inclined  to  trust  him.  The  Constituent  Assembly,  in  which  botli 
Garibaldi  and  Mazzini  had  seats,  decided  that  the  Pope  had  forfeited  the 
temporal  government  of  the  State,  that  he  should  be  guaranteed  the 
independent  exercise  of  his  spiritual  power,  and  that  a  pure  democracy 
should  be  created  under  the  name  of  the  Roman  Republic.  In  Tuscany 
Leopold  II  followed  the  Pope's  example  when  he  found  that  matters  were 
going  too  far,  and  escaped  first  to  San  Stefano  and  then  to  Gaeta.  Not 
returning,  a  republic  was  proclaimed  in  Florence  under  the  presidency 
of  Guerrazzi. 

REVOLUTION  IN  AUSTRIA    HUNGARY. 

During  the  months  which  witnessed  the  overthrow  and  restoration 
of  the  Austrian  power  in  Italy,  the  home  Government  was  undergoing  a 
great  crisis.  Kolowrat,  who  took  Metternich's  place,  was  unequal  to  the 
task  of  maintaining  order,  and  the  Government  was  carried  on  under 
the  dictation  of  the  students  and  the  mob.  The  disturbances  in  the 
capital  were  stirred  up  by  Kossuth,  who  aimed  at  freeing  Hungary 
altogether  from  Hapsburg  rule.  The  Emperor  had  already  granted  the 
Hungarians  an  independent  Ministry,  in  which  Kossuth  undertook  to 
control  the  finance.  But  the  Revolutionary  party  demanded  a  constitu- 
tion on  the  model  of  that  of  Baden,  and  the  Diet  was  terrified  by  an 
insurrection  into  passing  a  decree  for  its  establishment.  In  Bohemia  the 
Slavonic  party  also  agitated  for  the  formation  of  an  independent  govern- 
ment and  the  exclusion  of  German  elements.  But  the  Slavs  had  no 
sympathy  with  the  Magyars,  and  were  willing  to  support  the  Hapsburgs 
if  they  would  grant  their  demands.  They  were  especially  anxious  to 
prevent  the  federal  union  of  the  German  provinces  of  Austria  with  the 
rest  of  Germany.  Kossuth  determined  to  effect  his  own  aims  and  to 
frustrate  those  of  Bohemia  by  terrifying  the  imperial  government.  A 
new  constitution  had  been  issued,  which  established  the  ordinary  two 
chambers.  On  May  15th  the  populace  of  Vienna  rose  in  revolt  and 
demanded  the  abolition  of  the  aristocratic  chamber  and  the  summons  of 
a  National  Assembly  to  reform  the  constitution.  Resistance  was  im- 
possible, and  Ferdinand,  by  the  advice  of  the  Reactionary  party,  escaped 
with  his  family  from  Vienna  to  Innspruck.  This  was  a  very  well-judged 
measure,  because  it  freed  the  Emperor  from  the  influence  of  both  the 
Hungarians  and  the  Bohemians,  while  he  could  rely  upon  the  support  of 
the  Tyrolese,  always  the  most  loyal  subjects  of  the  house  of  Hapsburg. 


,859— BATTLE  OF  MAGENTA  BETWEEN  THE  AUSTRIANS  AND  ITALIANS 


STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS.  j^o 

WAR  THREATENED  IN  VIENNA. 

In  Vienna  the  wildest  excitement  prevailed  for  a  time.  The  mobs 
raised  barricades  in  the  streets,  and  civil  war  was  only  avoided  by  order 
ing  the  troops  to  leave  the  city.  In  Bohemia  the  Emperor's  departure 
to  Innspruck  was  regarded  as  a  serious  blow,  because  it  had  been  hoped 
that  he  would  take  up  his  residence  in  Prague  and  entrust  the  defence  of 
the  crown  to  his  Slav  subjects.  His  weakness  and  humiliation,  however, 
still  offered  a  favorable  prospect  of  realizing  their  designs.  On  June  2d 
a  great  Slavonic  Congress  was  opened  under  the  presidency  of  Palacky, 
the  historian.  Three  days  later  it  was  formally  decreed  that  the  Slavs 
would  remain  loyal  subjects  of  the  Hapsburgs  on  condition  that  the 
Austrian  monarchy  was  organized  as  a  federation.  At  the  same  time  a 
provisional  government  was  formed  in  Prague,  and  the  Emperor  was 
called  upon  to  order  Windischgratz,  the  commander  of  the  garrison,  to 
withdraw  his  troops.  But  before  this  could  be  answered  hostilities  broke 
out.  After  an  indecisive  conflict  in  the  street,  in  which  the  wife  of 
Windischgratz  was  killed,  the  garrison  retired  outside  the  walls,  but  only 
to  bombard  the  city  from  the  surrounding  hills.  This  decided  the 
struggle.  The  opposition  leaders  made  their  escape,  and  Prague  surren- 
dered unconditionally  (June  iSth).  This  was  only  a  small  success  in 
itself,  but,  coupled  with  Radetsky's  victory  in  Italy,  it  had  a  great  moral 
effect  in  restoring  the  courage  and  prestige  of  the  Austrian  Government. 
At  the  same  time  the  movement  in  Hungary  was  seriously  hampered  by 
the  action  of  the  Slavonic  portion  of  the  population.  The  Slavs  were 
always  bitterly  hostile  to  the  Magyars,  and  the  project  of  establishing  an 
independent  State  of  Hungary  threatened  them  with  political  annihilation. 
Their  only  hope  lay  in  the  maintenance  of  German  rule,  and  they  rose  in 
wild  revolt  against  the  dominant  party  of  Kossuth.  The  Magyars  had 
also  to  carry  on  war  with  the  Croates  under  their  Ban,  Jellachich,  who 
was  secretly  instigated  by  the  imperial  court. 

WAR  WITH  HUNGARY. 

Meanwhile  the  constituent  assembly,  which  Ferdinand  had  author- 
ized before  his  departure,  met  on  July  22,  1848.  Race  differences  among 
its  members  made  it  difficult  for  them  to  come  to  any  agreement,  and 
they  were  soon  absorbed  in  the  thorny  question  of  the  relation  of  lords 

and  serfs.     But  the  presence  of  the  Assembly  seemed  to  exercise  a  tran- 
17 


SH  STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

quilizing  effect  upon  Vienna,  and  the  more  favorable  aspect  ot  affairs 
emboldened  the  Emperor  to  return  to  his  capital  (August  12th).  In  the 
hope  of  ending  the  Hungarian  war  he  nominated  Count  Lamberg  com- 
mander of  the  troops  in  that  kingdom,  but  the  unfortunate  general  was 
murdered  on  the  bridge  of  boats  in  Pesth.  All  hopes  of  a  reconciliation 
were  now  at  an  end,  and  open  war  was  declared  against  the  Hungarians. 
But  this  act  also  terminated  the  tranquillity  at  Vienna,  which  was  in  a 
great  measure  due  to  the  influence  of  Kossuth.  On  October  6th  a  third 
revolt  commenced  and  proved  far  more  formidable  than  either  of  its  pre- 
decessors. Its  immediate  object  was  to  prevent  the  march  of  the  troops, 
who  had  been  ordered  to  proceed  to  Hungary.  The  mob  murdered 
Latour,  the  war  minister,  stormed  the  arsenals  and  compelled  the  Con- 
stituent Assembly  to  demand  from  the  Emperor  the  cessation  of  hostili- 
ties against  the  Hungarians.  Ferdinand  again  fled,  this  time  to  Olmutz, 
in  Moravia.  The  garrison  under  Auersperg  occupied  a  defensive  posi- 
tion in  the  Belvedere  gardens,  and  the  city  was  left  in  the  hands  of  the 
insurgents.  But  their  triumph  was  very  short-lived.  Jellachich,  with  his 
Croates,  marched  from  the  Raab  against  Vienna,  and  Windischgratz,  the 
victor  of  Prague,  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  all  Austrian 
troops  outside  of  Italy.  But  the  besieged  of  the  approaching  aid 
from  Hungary,  refused  to  yield,  and  for  several  days  carried  on  a 
desperate  struggle  against  superior  forces.  On  the  30th  the  Hunga- 
rian troops  were  seen  in  the  distance,  but  they  were  repulsed  after  a 
short  eneaeement  on  the  Schwecht.  This  sealed  the  fate  of  Vienna, 
which  surrendered  on  the  next  day.  The  rebels  received  the  prompt 
punishment  of  military  justice.  The  Austrian  monarchy  was  saved.  On 
November  24th  a  new  ministry  was  formed  under  Felix  Schwartzen- 
berg,  the  resolute  head  of  the  reactionary  party.  On  December  2d 
the  Emperor  Ferdinand  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  nephew,  Francis 
Joseph,  on  the  ground  that  "younger  powers  were  needed  to  carry 
'out  the  reforms  that  had  been  commenced."  The  Constituent  As- 
sembly, which  had  been  transferred  from  Vienna  to  Kremsier,  was  dis- 
solved (March  7,  1849),  and  a  new  constitution  was  granted  "by  the 
grace  of  the  Emperor," 

"KING   BOMBA." 

Meanwhile  the  reaction  at  Naples  and  Sicily  had  been  completed  with- 
out foreign  assistance.     Ferdinand  II,  after  recalling  his  troops  from  the 


STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS.  315 

war  in  Lombardy,  had  employed  them  in  reducing  the  SiciHans  to  obedi- 
ence. Naples  was  bombarded,  Messina  was  talcen  by  storm  (September 
7,  1848),  and  the  cruelties  practiced  by  the  victors  were  so  atrocious  that 
Ferdinand  received  the  nickname  of  "  King  Bomba."  The  Neapolitan 
Parliament  was  continually  prorogued,  and  was  finally  dissolved  without 
ever  having  been  allowed  to  meet.  The  Austrian  victory  of  Novara  en- 
couraged the  King  to  renew  his  attack  upon  Sicily.  In  April,  1849, 
Palermo  was  captured,  and  by  the  end  of  May  the  authority  of  the  Nea- 
politan King  was  completely  restored. 

REACTION   IN    PRUSSIA. 

The  suppression  of  disorder  at  Vienna  after  the  capture  of  the  city 
by  Windischgratz  led  to  a  similar  reaction  in  Prussia.  A  Constituent 
Assembly  had  been  sitting  in  Berlin  ever  since  May  22,  1848,  in  which 
the  democratic  party  sought  to  carry  through  its  aims  with  the  support 
of  the  mob.  In  June  the  arsenal  was  sacked,  and  the  Assembly,  instead 
of  condemning  the  disturbances,  took  advantage  of  them  to  abolish  the 
constitution  granted  by  the  King  and  to  issue  a  more  democratic  one  of 
their  own.  In  i\ugust  and  September  the  populace  was  guilty  of  fresh 
outraees,  which  the  Government  was  unable  to  check.  But  the  news 
from  Vienna  emboldened  the  King,  Frederick  William  IV,  to  take  deci- 
sive measures.  Count  Brandenburcr,  a  natural  son  of  Frederick  William 
II,  was  authorized  to  form  a  ministry,  of  which  Manteuffel,  Minister  of 
the  Interior,  was  the  guiding  spirit  (November  4th).  Four  days  later  the 
Constituent  Assembly  was  transferred  from  Berlin  to  the  town  of  Bran- 
denburg. When  the  Democrats  refused  to  obey,  a  considerable  body  of 
troops  under  Wrangel  entered  the  capital  and  enforced  compliance. 
Berlin  was  declared  in  a  state  of  siege,  all  the  inhabitants  were  disarmed 
and  the  political  clubs  were  dissolved.  When  the  Assembly  resumed  their 
meeting  in  Brandenburg  (November  27th),  the  Left  protested  against 
the  recent  action  of  the  Government,  and  quitted  the  hall  in  a  body.  On 
December  5th,  the  King  decreed  the  dissolution  of  the  Assembly,  and 
issued  a  new  constitution,  which  had  been  drawn  up  by  the  ministers. 
This  established  two  chambers,  chosen  by  indirect  election.  The  first 
election  was  ordered  to  take  place  in  February,  1849. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 


Sir    John    Franklin   Sails  to  Seek   the  North-west   Passage — Humboldt's 

"Kosmos" — Necrology — The  Planet   Neptune — The  Sewing- 

Machine — Anaesthetics — Personal. 


THE  story  of  Arctic  adventure  was  in  1845  marked  with  one  of  iti 
most  tragic  chapters.  In  that  year  Sir  John  FrankHn  sailed  on  hia 
famous  voyage  in  quest  of  the  North-west  Passage  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  across  the  northern  coast  of  the  North 
American  Continent.  For  the  discovery  of  this  passage,  which  was  after- 
ward effected  by  McClure,  the  British  Parliament  had  a  century  before 
offered  a  large  reward.  Sir  John  Franklin  was,  however,  influenced  by 
no  mercenary  motives,  but  was  fired  with  the  true  spirit  of  the  explorer. 
He  was  a  distinguished  officer  of  the  British  Navy,  and  a  veteran  of  the 
great  battles  of  Copenhagen  and  Trafalgar.  He  had  commanded  the 
British  gunboats  at  the  battle  of  New  Orleans,  and  had  been  wounded 
in  that  engagement.  He  had  led  Arctic  expeditions  in  18 18,  1819  and 
1825.  He  had  become  Post  Captain  and  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in 
1823;  had  been  knighted  in  1829,  and  in  the  latter  year  had  received 
from  Oxford  University  the  honorary  degree  of  D.  C.  L.  He  had  served 
as  Governor  of  Tasmania  in  1836-43,  and  had  been  greatly  beloved. 

Such  was  the  eminent  man  who  now  set  out  for  the  frozen  wilder- 
ness. He  took  with  him  an  expert  company  of  men  in  the  two  ships  of 
the  British  Navy — "  Erebus  "  and  "  Terror."  No  Arctic  expedition  down 
to  that  time  had  commanded  a  tithe  of  the  popular  interest  that  was  given 
to  this.  It  went  north,  and  entered  the  realm  of  perpetual  ice,  and  was 
never  seen  again.  More  than  a  score  of  search  and  relief  expeditions 
were  sent  after  it — from  England  and  America — but  without  result,  until 
in  1859  Captain  McClintock  found  evidence  that  Franklin  had  died  on 
June  II,  1847,  near  Lancaster  Sound,  and  that  all  his  men  had  subse- 
quently perished.  Lady  Franklin  survived  her  husband  for  many  years, 
devoting  her  after  life  to  philanthropic  labors  and  to  efforts  to  rescue  or 
learn  tidings  of  him. 

316 


STORY   OF    ONE    HUNDRED   YEARS.  3^7 

HUMBOLDT'S  "  KOSMOS." 

The  appearance  of  Humboldt's  "  Kosmos "  in  1845  rnarked  an 
epoch  in  the  literature  of  science.  Friedrich  Helnrich  Alexander,  Baron 
von  Humboldt,  one  of  the  most  illustrious  scientists  of  all  times,  was  a 
native  of  Berlin.  He  traveled  much,  and  was  a  profound  student  of  all 
branches  of  natural  science,  including  botany,  geology,  chemistry, 
astronomy  and  zoology,  beside  excelling  as  a  linguist  and  serving  with 
distinction  as  a  diplomat.  At  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  and  beginning 
of  the  nineteenth  centuries  he  spent  five  years  in  South  and  Central 
America,  havine  with  him  an  immense  caravan  of  assistants  and  an 
arsenal  of  scientific  instruments.  On  his  return  home  he  devoted  twenty- 
five  years  to  the  arrangement  of  his  stores  of  specimens,  etc.,  and  to 
writing  twenty-nine  volumes  of  treatises  on  his  discoveries  and  explora- 
tions. This  colossal  work  placed  him  at  the  head  of  the  scientific  world, 
and  gave  new  impulses  to  natural  science  in  every  direction,  and  even  to 
poetry  and  art.  Another  journey  of  exploration  was  made  under  the 
patronage  of  the  Czar  through  Central  Asia.  Finally,  in  1845,  he  began 
the  publication  of  his  greatest  work,  "  Kosmos,"  the  last  volume  of  which 
was  published  after  his  death  in  May,  1859. 

NECROLOGY. 

The  year  1845  saw  the  world  made  poorer  by  the  death  of  several 
men  of  eminent  rank.  Among  these  were  Sydney  Smith,  clergyman  and 
author,  one  of  the  founders  of  the  "  Edinburgh  Review,"  and  one  of  the 
most  brilliant  wits  and  essayists  the  world  has  known ;  Andrew  Jackson, 
who  had  been  President  of  the  United  States,  and  had  left  a  deep  and 
Ineffaceable  imprint  upon  the  history  of  this  nation  and  of  the  world  ; 
A.  W.  Schlegel,  the  German  critic  and  poet,  and  one  of  the  leaders  of 
the  Romantic  school  of  literature  ;  and  Thomas  Hood,  the  English  poet 
and  humorist,  the  greatest  punster  the  world  has  known,  and  the  author 
of  some  of  the  most  immortal  poems  in  the  English  language — such  as 
"The  Bridge  of  Sighs,"  "The  Song  of  the  Shirt,"  "The  Haunted 
House,"  and  "The  Dream  of  Eueene  Aram." 

o 

THE  PLANET  NEPTUNE. 

The  discovery  of  the  planet  Neptune  in  1846  was,  from  every  point 
of  view,  an    incident   of  the   highest   interest.     It   was    made    specially 


3l8  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

memorable  by  the  fact  that  it  was  effected  simultaneously  by  two  astron- 
omers, Adams  in  the  United  States,  and  Leverrier  in  France,  working 
independently,  and  each  in  entire  ignorance  of  the  other's  labors. 

THE  SEWING-MACHINE. 

We  must  credit  the  same  year,  1846,  with  the  invention  of  the  sew- 
ing-machine, for  it  was  then  that  Elias  Howe  obtained  his  first  patent  on 
that  labor-revolutionizing  device.  As  early  as  1790  Thomas  Saint,  an 
Englishmen,  had  invented  a  rude  machine  for  sewing,  which  contained 
the  germ  of  the  modern  machine.  Other  devices  were  brought  out  from 
time  to  time,  especially  by  John  Knowles  and  the  Rev.  John  Adams 
Dodge,  of  Moncton,  Vermont,  but  none  of  them  were  practically  suc- 
cessful. Thimonier,  in  France,  manufactured  in  1830  the  first  sewing- 
machine  that  was  ever  put  upon  the  market  for  sale.  His  machine  con- 
tained the  essential  principles  of  the  modern  sewing-machine.  But  it 
was  opposed  by  the  mob  of  Paris,  as  intended  to  deprive  the  poor  of 
work,  and  all  that  were  exposed  for  sale  were  violently  destroyed. 
Walter  Hunt,  of  New  York,  perfected  a  machine  in  1832-34  and  put  it 
upon  the  market  for  sale,  but  failed  to  patent  it.  J.  J.  Greenough  in- 
vented a  machine  for  sewing  shoes  in  1842,  but  it  was  not  a  permanent 
success.  George  H.  Corliss,  who  later  invented  various  improvements 
in  the  steam  engine,  added  to  the  number  of  unsuccessful  sewing- 
machines  in    1843. 

Finally,  in  1846,  Elias  Howe  obtained  a  patent  for  his  machine,  and 
although  his  earliest  machines  were  not  satisfactory,  he  is  rightly 
esteemed  as  the  real  inventor  of  this  ereat  labor-savingf  device.  Other 
inventors  took  up  the  example  which  he  set,  and  in  a  few  years  many 
different  kinds  of  sewing-machines  were  on  the  market.  Amongr  the 
foremost  of  these  were  the  Wheeler  &  Wilson,  invented  by  Allan  B. 
Wilson  in  1849;  the  Singer,  invented  by  Isaac  Singer  in  1850;  the 
Grover  &  Baker,  in  1851,  and  the  Wilcox  &  Gibbs,  in  1857.  All  but  the 
last  named,  which  used  a  single  thread  only,  were  held  to  be  infringe- 
ments upon  Howe's  patent,  and  the  makers  had  to  pay  him  a  royalty  of 
^25  on  each  machine  until  the  expiration  of  his  patent  in  1867. 

ANAESTHETICS. 

One  more  great  discovery  must  be  set  down  under  the  date  of  1846. 
It  was  in  that  year  that  anaesthetics  were  first  used.     The  actual  date  of 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  319 

their  invention  is  in  dispute.  In  ancient  times  the  anjesthetic  properties 
of  some  drugs  were  imperfectly  known.  In  1800  Sir  Humphrey  Davy 
suggested  the  use  of  nitrous  oxide,  and  ether  had  certainly  been  used 
experimentally  at  an  earlier  date.  In  1844  Horace  Wells,  a  dentist,  of 
Hartford,  Conn.,  used  nitrous  oxide,  or  "laughing  gas,"  to  prevent  pain 
in  the  extraction  of  teeth,  but  the  invention  fell  into  disuse,  if  not  disre- 
pute. It  was  soon  taken  up  again,  however,  and  remains  in  high  favor 
as  one  of  the  best  means  of  preventing  pain  in  dental  and  some  sur- 
gical operations. 

In  October,  1846,  Dr.  W.  T.  G.  Morton,  of  Boston,  who  had  already 
used  ether  successfully  in  dental  operations,  administered  it  to  a  patient 
in  the  Massachusetts  General  Hospital  during  a  surgical  operation  by  Dr. 
Warren.  It  was  completely  successful,  and  marked  the  beginning  of  a 
new  era  in  surgery.  For  it  not  only  robbed  operations  of  e.xcruciat- 
ing  pain,  but  it  thus  made  possible  long  and  important  operations  which 
without  it  were  absolutely  impossible.  Chloroform  was  introduced  as  an 
anaesthetic  by  Sir  J.  Y.  Simpson,  of  Edinburgh. 

PERSONAL. 

Lord  Macaulay  published  the  first  part  of  his  "  History  of  England  " 
in  1848,  and  thus  established  his  fame  as  one  of  the  most  accomplished 
writers  of  history  that  the  world  has  known. 

O'Connell,  the  Irish  "liberator,"  and  Mendelssohn,  the  musician, 
died  in  1847.  They  were  followed  in  1848  by  John  Ouincy  Adams,  who 
had  been  President  of  the  United  States  ;  Donizetti,  one  of  the  foremost 
composers  of  Italian  opera ;  Chateaubriand,  the  French  author  and 
statesman  ;  and  George  Stevenson,  the  inventor  of  railroads. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 


Zachary  Taylor  Becomes  President  of  the  United  States — The  Free  Soil 
Pasty — The  Slavery  Question — Clay's  Compromise — A  Famous 
Oration — Foote's  Resolution — Lopez  in  Cuba — Clayton- 
Bulwer  Treaty — Death  of  Taylor — Accession  of  Fill- 
more— The  Lopez  Expedition — Incidents  of  the 
Administration — Election  of  Pierce. 


IN    1849,  Mr.  Polk  was  succeeded  by  Zachary  Taylor,  most  of  whose 
life  had  been  spent  as  an  officer  in  the  army,  and  who,  in  the  Mexican 
war,  had  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a  military  commander.     Gen- 
eral Taylor  was   the  Whig  candidate,  and  he  received  163  electoral 
votes  for  President ;  and  General  Lewis  Cass,  the  Democratic  candidate, 
received  127  votes.     Millard  Fillmore,  the  Whig  candidate,  received  163 
votes  for  Vice-President. 

THE  FREE  SOIL  PARTY. 

On  the  3d  of  December  the  31st  Congress  commenced  its  first  ses- 
sion. On  several  former  instances  the  organization  of  the  House  had 
been  delayed,  by  ineffectual  efforts  to  elect  a  speaker.  In  1820,  17  bal- 
lotings  were  made  before  such  a  choice  could  be  effected.  In  the  present 
instance,  the  ballotings  were  extended  to  63,  occupying  the  space  of 
twenty  days.  This  delay  was  occasioned  by  the  "  Free  Soil  Party,"  so 
called,  which  was  composed  of  but  few  members,  but  who  were  able  to 
prevent  either  of  the  great  political  parties  in  the  House  from  effecting  a 
choice.  A  choice  was,  however,  at  length  made,  and  resulted  in  the 
election  of  the  Democratic  candidate. 

Such  a  severe  and  protracted  contest,  on  the  threshold  of  the  ses- 
sion, was  unanticipated,  both  by  Congress  and  the  nation.  The  delay 
caused  was  at  a  cost  to  the  national  treasury  of  more  than  ^50,000. 
"  But,"  as  a  writer  remarks,  "other  consequences  far  more  serious  than 
this  resulted.  The  feelings  of  members  became  excited  and  exasperated ; 
political  jealousies  and  animosities  were  kindled  ;  sectional  differences 
were  magnified  to   unwonted   importance,  and  sectional  interests  advo- 

320 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 


321 


cated  and  insisted  upon  ;  all  giving  premonition  of  the  long  and  stormy 
session  which  followed,  and  which  was  the  natural  and  almost  necessary 
result  of  such  selfish  and  party  proceedings." 

The  time,  however,  at  length  arrived  for  the  reception  of  the  annual 
message.  It  had  been  looked  for  with  great  interest.  It  was  a  brief 
but  comprehensive  document.  The  relations  of  the  country  were  stated 
to  be  on  an  amicable  footing  with  all  nations,  the  slight  interruption  of 
diplomatic  intercourse  with  France  having  already  terminated.  Various 
subjects  were  pressed  upon  the  attention  of  Congress,  among  which 
may  be  mentioned  a  revision  of  the  existing  tariff — the  establishment  of 
a  branch  mint  in  California — improvements  in  rivers  and  harbors — strict 
neutrality  of  the  nation  in  respect  to  foreign  contending  powers — and 
the  immediate  admission  of  California,  on  the  basis  of  the  Constitution, 
which  she  had  already  formed. 

THE  SLAVERY  QUESTION. 

Early  in  the  session  it  was  apparent  that  the  subject  of  slavery  was 
to  become  the  great  topic  of  controversy  and  debate.  The  recent  ac- 
quisitions of  territory,  growing  out  of  the  war  with  Mexico,  and  the  ques- 
tion whether  slavery  should  be  permitted  or  prohibited,  in  respect  to  those 
territories,  had  already  become  a  source  of  anxiety  and  agitation.  It 
was  well  known  that  California  was  about  to  make  application  to  be  ad- 
mitted into  the  Union  upon  the  basis  of  a  Constitution,  by  which  slavery 
was  forever  e.xcluded.  To  several  of  the  Southern  States  this  intelli- 
gence, if  not  entirely  unexpected,  was  most  unwelcome  ;  while  to  the 
people  of  the  North  such  a  prohibition  was  most  gratifying ;  and  the 
hope  was  indulged  that  not  only  her  admission  on  such  a  basis  would  be 
effected,  but  that  other  States,  which  should  be  subsequently  formed 
from  acquired  territory,  would  be  admitted  with  similar  provisions. 

The  members  of  Congress  themselves  largely  participated  in  the 
excitement  which  was  pervading  the  country.  This  was  manifested  in 
the  contest  attendant  upon  the  election  of  a  speaker  ;  and  no  sooner 
was  that  officer  elected,  and  the  business  of  the  session  commenced, 
than  it  was  quite  apparent  that  a  storm  was  arising,  which  would  require 
the  greatest  wisdom  and  the  purest  patriotism  to  allay.  It  was  fortunate 
for  the  country  that  the  Senate  at  this  time  embodied  men  of  great 
sagacity  and  firm  resolution  ;  and  upon  them  it  devolved  in  the   first  in- 


32  2  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

Stance  to  devise  measures,  which  it  was  hoped  would  serve  to  conciliate 
the  South  and  the  North,  and  heal  divisions  which,  if  suffered  to  increase, 
were  likely  to  peril  the  integrity  of  the  Union. 

CLAY'S  COMPROMISE. 

In  these  pacific  measures  Mr.  Clay  took  the  lead,  introducing  several 
resolutions  before  the  Senate,  "by  which  he  proposed,"  to  use  his  own 
language,  "an  amicable  arrangement  of  all  the  questions  in  controversy 
between  free  and  slave  States,  growing  out  of  the  subject  of  the  institu- 
tion of  slavery."  The  first  of  these  related  to  the  admission  of  Califor- 
nia, when  she  should  apply,  without  providing  for  the  introduction  or 
exclusion  of  slavery  within  her  boundaries.  The  second  declared  that 
slavery  does  not  exist,  and  is  not  likely  to  be  introduced  into  the  territories 
acquired  from  the  republic  of  Mexico ;  '^.nd  that  no  legislation  should  be 
had  in  reference  to  its  introduction  or  exclusion  therefrom.  The  third 
established  the  western  boundary  in  the  State  of  Texas.  The  fourth 
provided  for  the  payment  of  the  public  debt  of  the  State  of  Texas,  she 
relinquishing  to  the  United  States  all  her  claims  for  any  part  of  New 
Mexico.  The  fifth  asserted  the  inexpediency  of  abolishing  slavery  in  the 
District  of  Columbia,  without  the  consent  of  Maryland,  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  people  of  the  district,  and  without  just  compensation  to  the 
owners  of  the  slaves  within  the  district.  The  sixth  expressed  the  expe- 
diency of  prohibiting  the  slave  trade  in  the  District  of  Columbia.  The 
seventh  related  to  the  restitution  and  delivery  of  fugitive  slaves.  The 
eighth  denied  the  power  to  Congress  to  prohibit  or  obstruct  the  slave 
trade  between  the  slaveholding  States. 

A  FAMOUS  ORATION. 

At  a  subsequent  day,  Mr.  Clay  supported  these  resolutions  in  a 
speech,  which,  for  power,  pathos,  and  patriotic  sentiment,  has  seldom,  if 
ever,  been  excelled.  He  had  returned  once  more  from  private  life  to 
the  councils  of  the  nation,  to  lift  up  his  voice  as  the  friend  of  peace — as 
the  friend  of  his  country.  He  had  no  political  ambition  to  gratify — he 
was  soon  to  pass  away — he  would  soon  be  beyond  the  praise  or  the 
blame  of  men  ;  but  one  object  was  dear  to  his  heart ;  one  more  effort  he 
desired  to  make  in  behalf  of  that  country  which  he  had  loved,  which  he 
had  long  served,  and  which  to  his  dying  day  he  should  bear  upon  his 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  323 

heart.  The  Union  was  in  danger.  Clouds  of  deeper  density  than  he 
had  before  known  were  rising— were  gathering  still  greater  consistency, 
and  were  apparently  ready  to  pour  forth  a  terrible  storm  upon  tlie  land. 
Disunion  was  no  longer  with  some  an  object  of  dread.  The  calamities 
of  civil  war  were  thought  of,  and  some  no  longer  trembled  at  them.  But 
against  these  sources  of  disunion  and  these  causes  of  civil  war,  he  would 
loudly,  strongly,  untiringly  lift  his  warning  voice.  "Sir,"  said  he,  "I 
implore  gentlemen,  I  abjure  them,  whether  from  the  South  or  the  North, 
by  all  they  hold  dear  in  this  world — by  all  their  love  of  liberty — by  all 
their  veneration  for  their  ancestors — by  all  their  gratitude  to  Him  who 
has  bestowed  on  them  such  unnumbered  and  countless  blessings — by  all 
the  duties  which  they  owe  to  mankind — and  by  all  the  duties  which  they 
owe  to  themselves,  to  pause,  solemnly  to  pause  at  the  edge  of  the  preci- 
pice, before  the  fatal  and  dangerous  leap  is  taken  into  the  yawning  abyss 
below,  from  which  none  who  ever  take  it  shall  return  in  safety." 

Having  thus  presented  his  resolutions,  and  fortified  them  by  argu- 
ments and  considerations  of  the  highest  import,  Mr.  Clay  submitted  them 
to  such  action  on  the  part  of  the  Senate,  as  they  in  their  wisdom  should 
deem  best  for  the  country.  And  from  this  time  for  months  they  occu- 
pied the  attention  and  consideration  of  the  Senate,  to  the  exclusion  of 
almost  every  other  subject.  During  no  session  of  that  body,  since  the 
commencement  of  the  Federal  Government,  had  any  other  measure 
elicited  so  much  debate,  excited  such  ardent,  we  might  almost  say,  angry 
controversy.  Nor  can  we  stop  here.  Personal  invectives,  personal 
crimination  and  recrimination,  sadly  marred  the  dignity  of  grave  Senators, 
and  served  to  bring  dishonor  upon  a  body  which  had  long  been  the  pride 
and  boast  of  the  nation. 

FOOTE'S   RESOLUTION. 

The  resolutions  introduced  by  Mr.  Clay  not  proving  acceptable  to  a 
majority  of  Senators,  though  no  definite  action  was  had  respecting  them, 
a  proposition  was  made  by  Mr.  Foote  to  refer  the  entire  subject  to  a  se- 
lect committee  consisting  of  thirteen.  After  a  protracted  debate  the 
resolution  was  adopted,  and  the  committee  appointed,  of  which  Mr. 
Clay  was  chairman.  Early  in  May  this  committee  made  a  report,  intro- 
ducing a  compromise  or  omnibus  bill  of  the  following  tenor  : 

I.  The  admission  of  any  new  State  or  States,  formed  out  of  Te.xas, 
to  be  postponed  until  they  shall   hereafter  present  themselves  to  be  re- 


324  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

ceived  into  the  Union,  when  it  will  be  the  duty  of  Congress  fairly  and 
faithfully  to  execute  the  compact  with  Texas,  by  admitting  such  new 
State  or  States. 

2.  The  admission  forthwith  of  California  into  the  Union,  with  the 
boundaries  which  she  has  proposed. 

3.  The  establishment  of  territorial  governments,  without  the  Wilmot 
Proviso,  for  New  Mexico  and  Utah,  embracing  all  the  territory  recently 
acquired  by  the  United  States  from  Mexico  not  contained  in  the  bounda- 
ries of  California. 

4.  The  combination  of  these  two  last  mentioned  measures  in  the 
same  bill. 

5.  The  establishment  of  the  western  and  northern  boundary  of 
Texas,  and  the  exclusion  from  her  jurisdiction  of  all  New  Mexico,  with 
the  grant  to  Texas  of  a  pecuniary  equivalent.  And  the  section  for  that 
purpose  to  be  incorporated  in  the  bill  admitting  California,  and  establish- 
ing territorial  governments  for  Utah  and  New  Mexico. 

6.  More  effectual  enactments  of  law  to  secure  the  prompt  delivery 
of  persons  bound  to  service  or  labor  in  one  State,  under  the  laws  thereof, 
who  escape  into  another  State.     And, 

7.  Abstaining  from  abolishing  slavery  ;  but  under  a  heavy  penalty, 
prohibiting  the  slave-trade  in  the  District  of  Columbia. 

These  measures  were  finally  adopted,  and  thus,  it  was  hoped,  the 
slavery  question  was  disposed  of     But  the  hope  was  vain. 

LOPEZ    IN   CUBA. 

For  a  long  time  rumors  had  been  prevalent  that  an  armed  expedi- 
tion was  contemplated  in  the  United  States  against  the  island  of  Cuba. 
As  early  as  August,  1849,  the  President,  in  the  belief  that  such  an  expe- 
dition was  designed,  had  issued  his  proclamation,  warning  the  citizens  of 
the  United  States  against  connecting  themselves  with  an  enterprise  "  so 
grossly  in  violation  of  our  laws  and  our  treaty  obligations."  Notwith- 
standing this  executive  discountenance  of  such  a  project,  an  expedition, 
with  the  above  object  in  view,  left  New  Orleans  on  the  25th  of  April  and 
on  the  2 2d  of  May.  It  consisted  of  three  hundred  men,  under  the  com- 
mand of  General  Lopez.  The  ostensible  object  of  the  e.xpedition  was 
a  voyage  to  California,  and  it  is  asserted  that  not  a  few  of  the  men  en- 
listed under  this  assurance.     So  secretly  had  the  enterprise  been  planned 


STORV  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  325 

and  executed,  as  to  escape  the  knowledge  of  the  American  government 
and  the  vigilance  of  the  Spanish  consuls.  On  the  morning  of  the  19th 
of  May,  General  Lopez  landed  his  force  at  Cardenas,  immediately  upon 
which  a  combat  ensued  between  the  invaders  and  the  garrison.  This 
resulted  in  the  repulse  of  the  latter,  the  capture  of  the  Governor,  the 
plunder  of  the  palace,  and  the  seizure  of  the  public  money.  Whether 
assurances  had  been  given  to  the  invaders  that  Uiey  might  expect  the 
assistance  and  co-operation  of  the  inhabitants,  is  not  certain,  but  upon 
no  other  presumption  can  the  officers  of  the  expedition  be  aquitted  of 
consummate  folly  and  Infatuation.  Be  this,  however,  as  It  may,  the  In- 
vaders found  to  their  disappointment  that  Cuban  patriotism  was  not  a 
nonentity.  Lopez  and  his  followers  were  soon  made  to  feel  the  necessity 
of  an  immediate  escape,  in  order  to  save  their  lives.  Taking  with  him  a 
few  followers,  he  hastily  re-embarked,  leaving  the  great  body  of  his  ad- 
herents to  the  tender  mercies  of  the  authorities  of  Cuba. 

No  sooner  had  this  expedition  left  the  American  coast,  and  Its  object 
had  transpired,  than  President  Taylor  despatched  several  armed  vessels 
to  prevent,  if  possible,  its  landing  in  Cuba.  In  this,  however,  the  inten- 
tions of  the  American  executive  were  frustrated  ;  the  Invaders  having 
effected  a  landing  before  the  pursuing  vessels  could  overtake  them.  On 
the  return  of  Lopez  to  New  Orleans  he  was  arrested  and  held  for  trial. 
Two  vessels  In  the  Mexican  waters,  laden  with  men  suspected  of  being 
part  of  the  Invading  expedition,  were  captured  by  a  Spanish  steamer  and 
taken  into  Havana.  On  the  demand  of  the  President,  however,  these 
men  were  at  length  released,  their  being  no  evidence  that  they  were  In 
anywise  connected  with  the  expedition.  Indeed,  of  all  who  were  left  by 
Lopez  In  Cuba,  and  who  participated  In  the  Invasion,  but  two  or  three 
were  ultimately  condemned  to  punishment,  and  these  were  sent  to  the 
galleys. 

CLAYTON-BULWER  TREATY. 

An  Important  diplomatic  incident  of  this  administration  was  the  con- 
clusion, on  July  4,  1850,  of  the  Clayton-Bulwer  Treaty  between  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain.  This  treaty  provided  for  the  establish- 
ment of  a  communication  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans,  by 
means  of  a  ship  canal,  to  be  constructed  by  way  of  the  river  San  Juan  de 
Nicaragua,  and  either  or  both  of  the  lakes  of  Nicaragua  or  Managua,  to 
any  port  or  place  on  the  Pacific  Ocean.     It  also  bound  the  two  Signatory 


326  STORY  OF  ONt,  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

Powers  to  refrain  from  territorial  conquests  in  Central  America,  and  from 
the  exercise  of  exclusive  control  over  the  proposed  canal. 

DEATH  OF  ZACHARY  TAYLOR. 

The  history  of  events  now  brings  us  to  an  unexpected  and  most 
afflictive  dispensation — the  sudden  death  of  General  Taylor,  on  the  even- 
ing of  the  9th  of  July.  On  the  4th  of  that  month — memorable  in  the 
annals  of  American  history — he  had  participated  in  a  celebration  in  honor 
of  the  day,  during  which  he  had  suffered  greatly  from  exposure  and 
fatigue.  Consequent  upon  these  he  was  taken  ill,  and  after  a  few  days 
of  suffering  he  surrendered  his  spirit  into  the  hands  of  God,  who  gave 
it — leaving  to  his  friends  and  the  nation  his  assurance  that  he  "had  en- 
deavored to  discharge  his  duty."  His  funeral  was  attended  by  a  large 
military  gathering,  by  the  officers  of  the  general  government,  the  repre- 
sentatives of  foreign  nations,  and  by  an  immense  concourse  of  his  fellow- 
citizens. 

ACCESSION   OF  FILLMORE. 

President  Taylor  died  during  the  session  of  Congress,  and  Millard 
Fillmore,  in  accordance  with  the  provision  of  the  Constitution,  became 
President  of  the  United  States. 

Soon  after  the  accession  of  Mr.  Fillmore  the  series  of  important  acts 
were  passed  by  Congress,  which  had  been  proposed  by  Mr.  Clay  as 
"compromise  measures."  These  acts  consisted  of  the  admission  of 
California  into  the  Union  as  a  State,  the  establishment  of  the  boundary 
of  Texas,  the  organization  of  the  Territories  of  New  Mexico  and  Utah, 
the  suppression  of  the  slave-trade  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  and  the 
law  for  the  rendition  of  fugitive  slaves. 

The  act  for  the  rendition  of  fugitive  slaves,  which  was  passed  in  the 
House  of  Representatives,  on  the  12th  of  September,  1850,  by  a  vote  of 
one  hundred  and  nine  to  seventy-five,  contains  some  provisions  which 
were  very  offensive  to  the  Whig  party  generally,  and  to  most  of  the 
people  in  the  free  States,  and  its  execution  was,  in  some  cases,  attended 
with  much  opposition. 

THE  LOPEZ   EXPEDITION. 

In  April,  185 1,  President  Fillmore,  having  been  informed  of  another 
attempt  to  invade  Cuba  by  lawless  citizens  of  the  United  States,  under 
the  command  of  Lopez,  issued  a  proclamation  warning  them  of  the 
consequences. 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  327 

The  expedition,  however,  comprising  several  hundred  men.  a  part 
of  them  foreigners,  sailed  from  New  Orleans  in  August,  and  landed  in 
Cuba  on  the  northern  cost  of  the  western  department  of  that  island.  To 
their  landing  there  was  no  opposition. 

Leaving  Colonel  Crittenden  with  one  hundred  men  in  charge  of  the 
stores,  Lopez  himself  with  the  remainder  of  his  command,  advanced  into 
the  interior,  e.xpecting  that  his  standard  would  be  joined  by  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  island.  But  in  this  he  was  disappointed,  as  also  in  obtaining 
provisions  or  encouragement  of  any  sort. 

The  day  following  Colonel  Crittenden  and  his  force  were  attacked 
by  Spanish  troops,  and  compelled  to  retreat.  They  procured  small  boats, 
in  which  they  put  to  sea,  but  were  captured  on  the  15th  by  the  Spanish 
Steamer  "  Habenero."     On  the  17th  they  were  shot  at  Havana. 

On  the  1 3th  General  Lopez  was  also  attacked  by  a  large  body  of 
Spanish  troops  at  Las  Posas.  The  action  was  severe,  but  the  Spaniards 
were  repulsed.  Lopez  lost  about  fifty  men,  among  whom  was  Colonel  Bra- 
gay,  an  officer  who  had  served  with  distinction  in  Hungary.  Perceiving, 
however,  that  aid  from  the  inhabitants  was  not  to  be  expected,  and  that 
the  maintenance  of  his  position  was  impracticable,  Lopez  determined  to 
conceal  himself  in  the  mountains.  In  his  march  thither  he  inflicted  serious 
loss  upon  Spanish  troops  who  encountered  him.  On  the  29th,  however, 
he  was  captured  and  taken  to  Havana,  where,  two  days  later,  he  was  put 
to  death. 

INCIDENTS   OF  THE  ADMINISTRATION. 

During  Mr.  Fillmore's  administration  the  first  treaty  with  Hawaii 
was  made,  and  the  question  of  annexing  those  islands  to  the  United 
States  was  considered  ;  the  Territory'  of  Washington  was  formed  and 
organized;  the  practice  of  flogging  in  the  Navy  was  abolished;  and  the 
capitol  at  Washington  was  greatly  enlarged  and  beautified. 

Although  Mr.  Fillmore,  by  signing  the  fugitive  slave  law  bill,  lost 
the  support  of  many  of  his  party,  yet  most  of  the  measures  of  his  admin- 
istration were  popular  ;  some  of  the  most  noted  of  which  were  the  re- 
duction of  inland  postage  to  three  cents  on  each  single  letter  when  pre- 
paid ;  and  an  expedition  to  Japan,  in  1852,  under  the  command  of 
Commodore  Perr)',  which  resulted  in  a  favorable  treaty  with  that  empire, 
which  was  ratified  by  the  Senate  in  1854;  and  when  he  retired  from 
office  he  left  the  country  at  peace  and  in  a  high  state  of  prosperity. 


328  STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED   YEARS. 

ELECTION  OF  PIERCE. 

As  Mr.  Fillmore's  term  of  office  was  limited  to  March  4,  1853,  it 
became  necessary  for  the  great  parties  of  the  country  seasonably  to 
nominate  their  respective  candidates  to  succeed  him.  Accordingly,  on 
the  1st  of  June,  a  Democratic  National  Convention  met  at  Baltimore. 
The  number  of  delegates  present  was  two  hundred  and  eighty-eight  ;  and 
a  rule  was  adopted  requiring  a  vote  of  two-thirds  (192)  for  a  nomi- 
nation. Unsuccessful  ballotings  were  had  for  four  days,  and  it  was  not 
until  the  forty-ninth  ballot  that  General  Franklin  Pierce,  of  New  Hamp- 
shire, received  the  nomination.  Upon  the  forty-eighth  ballot  he  received 
one  hundred  and  fifty-five  votes,  the  remainder  being  divided  between 
Messrs.  Cass,  Buchanan  and  Marcy.  Upon  the  forty-ninth  trial  he 
received  one  hundred  and  eighty-two  votes.  Hon.  William  R.  King,  of 
Alabama,  was  nominated  for  Vice-President. 

The  Whie  National  Convention  met  likewise  at  Baltimore  on  the 
1 7th  of  June,  and  after  four  days'  obstinate  contest  between  the  supporters 
of  President  Fillmore,  Secretary  Webster  and  General  Winfield  Scott, 
finally  nominated  the  last  named  for  President,  with  Hon.  William  A. 
Graham,  of  North  Carolina,  for  Vice-President. 

The  Free  Democracy  National  Convention,  which  assembled  at 
Pittsburg  in  August  nominated  John  P.  Hale  for  President  and  George 
W.  Julian  for  Vice-President. 

The  election  in  November  resulted  in  the  choice  of  the  Democratic 
candidate,  Franklin  Pierce. 


GENERAL  ROBERTS 


GENERAL  M1LE5 


i860— LEADING    GENERALS  AND  ADMIRALS  OF  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 


The  Frankfort  Parliament — Organizing  a  German  League — An   Error    of 
Tactics — A   Christmas  Gift  to   Germany — Framing  a  Constitution — A 
King    Declines    to    be    Emperor — A    Conflict    with    the    Kings^ 
Revolutionary     Movements — The     First    "  Dreibund  "  —  FineJ 
Failure    of    the    Congress — Schleswig-Holstein — Kossuth's 
Campaign  —  Russian    Intervention  —  Another    Italian 
War — Italian  Republic  Crushed — The  Taiping  Re- 
bellion— Indian    Affairs — Death    of    Lopez    in 
Cuba  —  Imperial    Ambitions  —  The    Coup 
D'Etat — Restoration   of  the  Empire — 
Rebuilding     Paris. 


WHILE  the  States  of  Europe  were  convulsed  with  the  storm 
of  revokition,  a  grand  national  assembly  at  Frankfort  was 
endeavoring  to  devise  a  constitution  which  should  form 
Germany  into  a  great  and  united  State.  This  assembly, 
which  may  be  called  the  German  Parliament,  to  distinguish  it  from 
the  Reichstag  or  Bundestag,  had  been  summoned  by  the  Vorparla- 
ment,  and  was  opened  in  the  church  of  St.  Paul  on  May  i8,  1848. 
It  contained  at  first  300  members,  but  their  number  was  afterwards 
increased  to  500.  The  Parliament  failed  to  carry  out  its  resolutions, 
but  nevertheless  it  was  a  notable  experiment,  and  a  worthy  ex- 
ponent of  the  hopes  and  aspirations  of  the  noblest  minds  of  Germany. 
The  ofreat  obstacle  to  its  success  was  that  it  had  nothingr  but  moral 
force  to  rely  upon  ;  that  it  trusted  to  the  enthusiasm  of  the  people 
to  triumph  over  the  jealous  interests  of  the  princes  and  the  deeply- 
rooted  tendencies  to  disunion.  From  the  first  the  assembly  was 
divided  into  three  fairly  distinct  parties.  On  the  right  the  conserva- 
tives, headed  by  von  Radowitz  and  Vincke,  wished  to  negotiate  an 
agreement  between  the  Parliament  and  the  independent  princes  and 
governments  of  the  separate  States.  On  the  left  the  democrats,  led 
by  Robert  Blum  of  Leipsic,  aimed  at  the  establishment  of  a  federal 
republic,  and  made  up  for  their  numerical  weakness  by  stirring  up 
the  passions  of  the  lower  classes.     The  centre  was  the  largest  party, 


332  STORY    OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

and  comprised  many  of  the  most  eminent  men  in  Germany.  Amoncr 
its  leaders  were  Gagern,  Dahlmann,  Gervinus,  Arndt,  Beseler,  and 
Jacob  Grimm.  These  men  were  the  partisans  of  constitutional  mon- 
archy. They  were  imbued  with  the  most  ardent  love  of  their  country, 
but  their  want  of  practical  e.xperience  in  public  business  exposed 
them  to  the  charge  of  being  doctrinaires. 

ORGANIZING  A  GERMAN  LEAGUE. 

The  choice  of  the  president,  Gagern,  gave  evidence  that  the 
centre  was  likely  to  have  the  decisive  voice.  The  first  business  was 
to  establish  an  executive  government  to  take  the  place  of  the  effete 
and  useless  Bundestag.  After  a  long  discussion  it  was  decided  to 
choose  a  provisional  administrator  from  among  the  younger  members 
of  the  ruling  families.  The  choice  fell  upon  the  archduke  John,  who 
had  shown  popular  sympathies,  and  who,  as  a  Hapsburg,  was  likely 
to  be  acceptable  to  the  princes.  The  election  was  intended  to  be  a 
temporary  compromise.  The  party  of  Gagern  and  Dahlmann  was 
fully  determined  to  entrust  the  headship  of  a  new  constitutional  em- 
pire to  the  King  of  Prussia,  and  the  weakness  of  Austria  at  this  time 
made  such  a  measure  more  than  usually  feasible.  But  at  the  moment 
Frederick  William  IV.  was  extremely  unpopular  in  Germany,  and  it 
was  necessary  to  gain  time  in  order  that  this  feeling  might  die  away. 
On  July  1 1  the  administrator  made  his  formal  entry  into  Frankfort, 
and  the  Bundestag  resigned  its  functions  into  his  hands.  He  pro- 
ceeded to  nominate  a  ministry  which  should  be  responsible  for  all 
acts  of  the  executive.  From  the  first  the  weakness  of  the  central 
government  was  obvious  to  all  eyes.  The  Parliament  ordered  that 
all  German  troops  should  take  an  oath  of  fealty  to  the  administrator. 
But  the  princes  were  by  no  means  inclined  to  sacrifice  one  iota  of  their 
military  independence,  and  in  the  larger  States  the  order  was  simply 
disregarded.  It  was  manifest  that  the  central  government  existed  only 
by  the  tolerance  of  the  States,  and  if  they  refused  to  obey  there  was  no 
force  which  could  compel  their  obedience. 

AN  ERROR  OF  TACTICS. 

Before  proceeding  to  draw  up  the  new  constitution,  the  Parliament 
set  itself  to  formulate  "  the  fundamental  rights  of  the  German  people." 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  T,T,^ 

This  was  a  grotesque  error  of  tactics.  The  discussion  of  first  principles 
naturally  led  to  an  endless  discussion,  and  during  the  delay  the  princes 
were  recovering  strength.  The  first  impulse  of  the  revolutionary 
movement  might  have  been  strong  enough  to  force  a  federal  constitution 
upon  Germany,  but  the  Parliament  foolishly  allowed  this  impulse  to 
spend  itself  and  a  reaction  to  set  in  before  they  entered  upon  their 
real  task. 

A  CHRISTMAS  GIFT  TO  GERMANY. 

By  the  end  of  1848  the  Parliament  had  drawn  up  the  "fundamental 
rights,"  and  published  them  as  a  Christmas  present  to  the  nation.  They 
were  based  on  the  prevailing  liberal  theories,  and  included  legal  equality 
for  all  men  without  regard  to  class  privileges,  the  abolition  of  all  feudal 
dues  and  burdens  on  the  peasants,  the  freedom  of  the  press,  religious 
equality,  trial  by  jury,  the  abolition  of  capital  punishment,  etc.  The 
lesser  States  accepted  them,  the  greater  States  took  no  notice,  and  they 
were  soon  forgotten.  The  assembly  now  turned  to  the  great  question 
of  the  constitution.  By  iar  the  most  important  problem  was  the  relation 
of  Austria  to  a  German  federation.  In  the  early  part  of  the  year 
Austria,  then  in  the  thick  of  her  difficulties,  had  been  disrerarded,  but 
matters  had  been  completely  altered  in  October  by  the  reduction  of 
Vienna  to  obedience.  The  restoration  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  with 
a  Hapsburg  head  was  impossible,  because  Prussia  would  never  submit 
to  it.  Equally  impossible  in  the  eyes  of  the  assembly  was  a  return  to 
the  old  organization  of  the  Bund,  which  had  completely  proved  its 
inefficiency.  In  these  circumstances  the  Parliament  had  three  alternatives 
to  choose  between,  (i)  Austria  might  be  split  up,  and  its  German 
provinces  might  be  united  with  the  German  federation.  (2)  The 
Austrian  empire  might  be  left  as  it  stood,  and  be  excluded  from  Germany 
altogether.  (3)  Even  though  this  latter  plan  were  carried  out,  some 
bond  might  be  found  to  unite  the  Austrian  empire*  with  the  German 
federation.  This  last  was  the  plan  adopted  by  Gagern  and  his  immedi- 
ate followers,  who  proposed  to  form  two  federations — a  smaller,  which 
should  exclude,  and  a  larger,  which  should  include,  Austria.  But  this 
proposal  alienated  a  number  of  sincere  patriots,  who  could  not  endure 
the  formation  of  a  united  Germany  to  which  any  Germans  were  refused 
admission, 


^^4  SroKV    OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

FRAMING  A  CONSTITUTION. 

Parties  being  so  evenly  divided  on  a  question  of  vital  importance, 
the  work  of  framing  the  constitution  proceeded  slowly.  It  was  decided 
that  the  executive  government  should  have  the  conduct  of  foreign 
relations,  the  supreme  control  of  the  army,  and  the  right  of  deciding 
peace  or  war.  The  legislature  was  to  consist  of  two  houses  :  a  federal 
chamber  {Staicnhaus),  based  on  the  independence  of  the  States  ;  and  a 
popular  chamber  {Volkshaus),  based  upon  the  unity  of  the  people.  The 
most  obstinate  discussion  naturally  arose  about  the  form  which  the 
executive  government  should  take.  The  extreme  right  proposed  a 
simple  return  to  the  old  Biindestag,  the  extreme  left  proposed  to  establish 
an  elective  presidency  to  which  any  adult  German  might  aspire.  Between 
these  two  schemes  every  conceivable  variety  of  government  was  brought 
forward  for  discussion.  Some  wanted  a  "directory"  of  princes,  with 
Austria  or  Prussia  as  alternate  presidents  ;  others  a  triple  executive,  in 
which  Bavaria  should  be  associated  with  the  two  great  powers.  Austria 
demanded  that  there  should  be  a  directory  of  seven  princes,  with  nine 
votes,  Austria  and  Prussia  having  two  votes  each.  Gradually  the 
advantages  of  a  single  head  were  realized,  but  even  then  further 
difficulties  arose.  Should  he  be  elective  or  hereditary  ?  should  he  bear 
the  imperial  or  some  other  title  ?  should  the  office  pass  in  rotation  among 
the  great  families  ?  The  party  of  Gagern  stood  firm  to  their  original 
programme,  the  appointment  of  a  single  hereditary  emperor,  and  they 
carried  the  day.  This  pointed  to  the  election  of  the  Prussian  king,  and 
exclusion  of  Austria.  The  "Great  German"  party  was  so  indignant  at 
this  that  they  allied  themselves  with  the  left  to  introduce  democratic  pro- 
visions into  the  constitution,  hoping  to  ensure  its  failure.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  alliance,  manhood  suffrage  was  fixed  for  the  popular 
chamber,  and  the  veto  of  the  emperor  was  made  suspensive  instead  of 
absolute.  The  constitutional  party  realized  that  these  articles  threatened 
their  scheme  with  shipwreck,  but  they  could  obtain  no  other  terms.  The 
constitution  was  carried  as  a  whole.  On  April  3d,  1849,  a  deputation 
appeared  in  Berlin  to  offer  the  hereditary  empire  to  the  king  of  Prussia. 

A  KING  DECLINES  TO  BE  EMPEROR. 

The  offer  was  siifficiently  tempting,  but  Frederick  William  IV. 
made  up   his   mind   at   the   last   moment   to  refuse  it,  and  it  must  be 


I86I— DEFENDING  FORT  SUMTER 


< 

z 

o 

■r, 


O 

o 

2 

in 

< 


H 

O 

< 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  ;i,T,J 

confessed  that  he  had  ample  reason  for  doing  so.  The  democratic 
clauses  which  the  left  had  tacked  on  to  the  constitution  were  distasteful 
to  a  prince  who  had  had  to  contend  with  the  populace  in  his  own 
capital,  and  the  crown  could  not  be  accepted  without  the  constitution. 
The  whole  work  of  the  Parliament  had  originated  with  the  revolution, 
and  the  king  would  receive  no  gift  from  such  a  source. 

A  CONFLICT  WITH  THE  KINGS. 

The  refusal  of  Prussia  gave  a  great  advantage  to  the  democratic 
party  at  Frankfort,  and  this  was  increased  by  the  withdrawal  of  the 
Austrian  deputies  (April  14).  In  Prussia  the  lower  chamber  petitioned 
the  king  to  accept  the  proposals  from  Frankfort,  and  was  dissolved  on 
April  27.  But  the  Parliament  refused  to  be  daunted,  and  decreed  on 
May  4  that  all  governments  should  be  called  upon  to  accept  the  consti- 
tution ;  that  if  the  king  of  Prussia  refused  the  headship  of  the  empire 
it  should  be  conferred  provisionally  upon  the  next  most  powerful  prince  ; 
that  the  first  diet,  elected  in  the  manner  provided  for,  should  meet  on 
August  22. 

REVOLUTIONARY  MOVEMENTS. 

To  enforce  these  decrees,  the  now  dominant  left  determined  to 
employ  the  revolutionary  methods  which  had  been  so  potent  in  the 
previous  year.  A  riot  in  Dresden  compelled  the  king  to  fly  to  Konig- 
stein,  and  a  provisional  government  was  erected.  But  the  troops, 
with  Prussian  assistance,  speedily  got  the  better  of  the  mob,  and  an 
attempted  rising  in  Leipsic  was  also  suppressed.  More  important  were 
the  revolutions  in  Baden  and  the  Palatinate,  but  here  also  Prussia  inter- 
vened with  decisive  effect.  The  Parliament  was  now  completely  dis- 
credited. The  Prussian  and  Saxon  deputies  were  withdrawn,  and 
Gagern,  finding  himself  in  a  hopeless  minorit)',  resigned  office  with 
his  colleagues.  The  democrats,  thus  left  to  their  own  devices,  passed 
futile  protests  against  the  action  of  Prussia,  and  took  the  revolutionary 
movement  under  their  feeble  protection.  Thinking  Frankfort  insecure, 
they  transferred  their  session  to  Stuttgart  (June  6);  but  when  they 
endeavored  to  excite  a  movement  among  the  mob,  the  government  of 
Wurtemberg  closed  the  hall  against  them,  and  the  first  German  Parlia- 
ment came  to  an  end  on  June   18,    1849. 


338  STORY    OF   ONE    HUNDRED   YEARS. 

THE  FIRST  "  DREIBUND." 

As  Austria  was  at  this  time  occupied  witli  the  wars  in  Hungary 
and  Italy,  the  restoration  of  order  in  Germany  fell  to  Prussia,  which 
thus  obtained  a  commanding  position.  Frederick  William  IV.  had  not 
refused  the  offer  of  the  empire  from  any  personal  unwillingness  or 
want  of  ambition  ;  on  the  contrary  he  was  eager  to  become  the  head 
of  Germany,  if  he  could  do  so  with  the  consent  of  the  other  govern- 
ments, instead  of  being  forced  upon  them  by  a  revolutionary  Assem- 
bly. In  May  17,  1849,  he  opened  a  conference  of  princes  at  Berlin, 
before  which  he  laid  his  plan  of  a  confederation  exclusive  of  Austria. 
Prussia  was  to  be  president  of  a  college  of  princes  with  six  votes, 
and  a  federal  Parliament  was  to  be  formed  of  two  chambers.  Bavaria 
withdrew  from  the  meeting,  but  Hanover  and  Saxony  remained, 
and  thus  was  formed  the  "league  of  the  three  kings"  (Dreikon- 
igsbund).  The  party  of  Gagern  and  Dahlmann  held  a  meeting  at 
Gotha  (the  Nachparlament)  to  express  their  approval  of  the  Prus- 
sian plan. 

But  Austria  now  succeeded  in  putting  down  the  opposition  in 
Italy  and  Hungary  and  prepared  to  vindicate  its  position  in  Germany. 
Bavaria  and  Wurtemberg  offered  their  mediation,  and  the  Interim  was 
arranged  as  a  compromise  between  the  two  rival  powers.  This 
formed  a  commission,  appointed  by  Austria  and  Prussia,  into  whose 
hands  the  administrator  was  to  resign  his  functions,  and  which  should 
act  as  a  provisional  government  in  Germany  until  May,  i,  1S50.  The 
Prussian  king  met  the  emperor  of  Austria  at  Toplitz  (September  7) 
and  accepted  this  agreement.  But  the  rivalry  of  the  two  States  continued 
until  a  permanent  settlement  could  be  arranged.  The  "league  of 
the  three  kings"  was  broken  up  by  the  secession  at  Hanover  and  Sax- 
ony, but  Prussia  adhered  to  its  plan  of  forming  a  "Union"  apart  from 
Austria.  The  issue  of  a  new  Prussian  constitution  (February  6,  1S50), 
conciliated  the  liberal  party  in  Germany,  while  Austria  relied  upon  the 
arbitrary  tendencies  of  the  princes.  On  March  20th  the  second  Ger- 
man Parliament  met  at  Erfurt,  but  it  had  none  of  the  prestige  or 
independence  of  its  predecessor  at  Frankfort.  It  was  completely  sub- 
servient to  Prussian  influence,  and  sat  only  to  confirm  the  projected 
"Union,"  which  was  now  joined  by  Hesse-Cassel,  Oldenburg;  Baden, 
Weimar,  and  other  lesser  States. 


STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED   YEARS.  339 

FINAL  FAILURE  OF  THE  CONGRE^SS. 

But  Austria  refused  to  fall  without  a  struggle  from  the  leading 
position  it  had  so  long  held  in  Germany,  and  could  rely  upon  the  un- 
hesitating support  of  the  four  kingdoms  and  of  Russia,  which  now 
be^an  to  exercise  a  ereat  influence  in  German  affairs.  The  ministry 
of  Schwarzenberg  took  the  bold  step  of  summoning  the  old  Bundes- 
tag to  Frankfort,  and  the  summons  was  obeyed  by  all  the  States 
which  had  not  joined  the  "  Union."  Germany  was  thus  divided  into 
two  hostile  camps,  and  only  a  slight  impulse  was  needed  to  bring 
about  a  civil  war.  For  the  moment  a  conflict  seemed  inevitable.  But 
in  Prussia  a  strong  party  had  arisen  under  the  leadership  of  Gerlach, 
Retzow,  and  Bismarck-Schonhausen,  which  disapproved  of  all  the  recent 
acts  of  the  government,  and  wished  to  prevent  the  absorption  of  Prus- 
sia into  Germany.  The  influence  of  this  party,  and  the  intervention  of 
Russia,  prevented  Frederick  William  IV  from  embarking  in  a  war,  the 
issue  of  which  was  more  than  doubtful.  A  conference  at  Olmijtz  ended 
in  the  conclusion  of  a  convention  (November  29),  by  which  Prussia 
gave  up  the  "Union,"  withdrew  its  protection  from  the  movement  in 
Hesse,  and  agreed  to  join  a  conference  at  Dresden  for  the  settlement 
of  German  affairs. 

The  conference  of  Dresden  was  opened  under  the  presidency  of 
Schwarzenberg  on  December  23.  From  the  first  it  was  evident  that 
the  influence  of  Russia  would  be  decisive.  The  motives  of  the  Czar's 
policy  were  very  simple.  He  wished  to  maintain  the  rivalry  of  Austria 
and  Prussia,  and,  by  supporting  the  lesser  States  to  prevent  either  of 
them  from  obtaining  increased  power.  He  demanded,  therefore,  the 
simple  restoration  of  the  old  state  of  things  before  184S.  This  was  the 
net  result  of  the  conference,  which  was  closed  on  May  15,  1850.  On 
the  same  day  a  Prussian  plenipotentiary  joined  the  Bundestag  at  Frank- 
fort.    Thus  the  great  movement  ended  in  complete  failure. 

SCHLE^SWIG-HOLSTEIN. 

The  intricate  question  of  Schleswig-Holstein  was  still  unsettled. 
In  March,  1849,  the  Danish  government  declared  the  truce  of  Malmo 
at   an    end   and    renewed    the   war.      The    German     Bund    dispatched 


*40  STORV    01'   ONE    UU.NURKD    YEARS. 

45,000  troops  to  the  assistance  of  the  duchies,  and  the  Danes  were 
defeated  in  several  engagements.  But  a  decisive  Danish  victory  at 
Fredericia  (July  6)  compelled  the  acceptance  of  a  truce  by  which 
Schleswig  and  Holstein  were  separated.  The  latter  duchy,  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Bund,  was  to  remain  under  the  rule  of  the  administrator, 
but  Schleswig  was  to  receive  a  Danish  government,  and  the  German 
troops  were  to  be  withdrawn.  A  year  later  this  arrangement  was 
confirmed  by  a  definitive  treaty  between  Denmark  and  Prussia  (July 
2,  1850).  The  duchies,  however,  refused  to  accept  the  treaty  and  con- 
tinued the  war  on  their  own  account.  But  they  were  defeated  in  one 
battle  after  another,  and  foreign  intervention  stepped  in  to  put  an 
end  to  the  contest.  At  the  conference  of  Olmiitz,  Austria  and  Prussia 
agreed  to  take  joint  measures  to  restore  peace  in  Schleswig  and 
Holstein.  Their  troops  marched  into  the  duchies  and  compelled  the 
cessation  of  hostilities.  Ultimately  the  treaty  of  London  (May  8,  1852), 
signed  by  England,  Russia,  Austria,  France,  Prussia,  and  Sweden, 
guaranteed  the  integrity  of  the  Danish  monarchy,  the  succession  to 
which  was  promised  to  Christian  of  Gliicksburg  and  his  male  issue. 
The  rights  of  the  German  Confederation  in  Holstein  were  left  undis- 
turbed, and  the  duke  of  Augustenburg,  whose  legal  claim  to  the 
duchies  was  arbitrarily  disregarded,  was  obliged  to  content  himself 
with  a  pecuniary  compensation.  Frederick  of  Denmark  granted  his 
subjects  a  new  constitution  (October  1855)  and  allowed  Schleswig  and 
Holstein  to  retain  separate  provincial  estate.  But  he  failed  to  con- 
ciliate the  affection  of  his  German  subjects,  and  their  discontent  sur- 
vived to  be  the  source  of  future  complications. 

KOSSUTH'S  CAMPAIGN. 

The  Austrian  Emperor,  Francis  Joseph,  recognized  'hat  his  first 
task  was  the  reduction  of  Hungary,  and  entrusted  Windischgratz  with 
the  completion  of  the  work  which  had  been  so  successfully  commenced 
at  Prague  and  Vienna.  The  Hungarians  refused  to  accept  the  abdication 
of  Ferdinand,  and  the  government  was  still  carried  on  in  his  name. 
Kossuth  was  compelled  to  adopt  this  course  to  conciliate  the  army 
and  its  leader,  Gorgey,  who  were  determined  not  to  act  as  rebels,  and 
had  no  sympathy  with  the  republican  aspirations  of  the  great  orator. 
Windischgratz  began  the  campaign  on  December  isth,  and  met  with  no 


STORV   OF   ONE    HUNDRED   YEARS.  341 

real  opposition  to  his  early  movements.  Kossuth's  plan  was  to  give  up 
western  Hungary  to  the  invaders  in  order  to  entice  them  into  the  marshy 
districts  of  the  interior  during  the  winter  season.  The  committee  of 
national  defence,  of  which  Kossuth  was  president,  abandoned  Pesth,  and 
the  city  was  occupied  by  the  Austrians  (June  5th,  1849).  From  this 
moment  the  cause  of  the  insurgents  triumphed.  Bem,  a  Polish  e.xile, 
who  had  commanded  in  the  recent  defence  of  Vienna  and  had  escaped 
from  the  conquerors,  was  sent  to  act  against  the  Saxon  population  of 
Transylvania,  which  refused  to  accept  the  rule  of  the  Magyars  and  main- 
tained the  cause  of  the  imperial  government.  By  the  end  of  February 
he  succeeded  in  reducing  the  whole  province.  Windischgratz  now 
advanced  from  Pesth  into  the  interior.  At  Kapolna  (February  26-27th) 
a  two  days'  battle  took  place,  but  the  Hungarians  retired  to  the  river 
Theiss.  There  a  number  of  battles  were  fought  to  defend  the  passage 
of  the  river,  and  everywhere  the  Austrians  were  repulsed.  Gorgey  was 
now  able  to  take  the  aggressive,  and  carried  all  before  him.  Windisch- 
gratz was  recalled,  but  his  successor,  Welden,  found  it  necessary  to 
evacuate  Pesth.  The  Hungarians  returned  to  the  capital  in  triumph, 
and  stormed  Buda  (Ofen)  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  Danube,  after  a 
heroic  defence  on  the  part  of  the  garrison  (May  21st).  The  Austrian 
army  retreated  to  Pressburg,  in  the  extreme  west  of  the  kingdom.  The 
triumph  of  the  insurgents  was  celebrated  by  the  declaration  ot  Hunga- 
rian independence  (April  14th),  and  the  creation  of  a  provisional 
government,  with  Kossuth  at  its  head.  This  bold  step  destroyed  the 
last  chance  of  a  compromise,  but  at  the  same  time  it  alienated  Gorgey, 
who  henceforth  acted  in  complete  independence. 

RUSSIAN    INTERVENTION. 

The  Austrian  government  began  to  despair  of  reducing  Hungary 
by  its  own  efforts,  and  turned  for  assistance  to  Russia,  the  patron  of  all 
States  contending  against  revolution.  On  May  21st,  the  very  day  on 
which  Buda  surrendered,  Francis  Joseph  met  the  Czar  in  a  personal 
interview  at  Warsaw.  Nicholas  was  afraid  lest  the  success  of  the  Hunga- 
rians might  provoke  a  rising  in  Poland,  which  was  more  likely,  as  many 
Poles  were  serving'  in  the  Hungarian  army,  and  willingly  accorded  the 
aid  that  was  demanded.  In  June,  Paskiewitch  entered  Hungary  with 
130,000  men,    and    the   command    of  the    Austrians  was   entrusted   to 


342  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

Haynau,  already  notorious  for  the  severity  with  which  he  had  treated  the 
defeated  ItaUans  of  Lombardy.  The  eloquence  of  Kossuth  induced  the 
Hungarians  to  carry  on  a  desperate  guerilla  warfare  against  the  invaders. 
But  the  contest  was  too  unequal,  and  the  differences  between  the  military 
and  the  civil  leaders  weakened  the  national  cause.  At  Temesvar  one 
division  of  the  Hungarian  army,  under  Dembinski,  was  crushed  by 
Haynau  (August  9th).  Kossuth  now  resigned  his  office  and  proceeded 
to  Transylvania.  Gorgey  was  appointed  dictator,  but  he  had  already 
opened  negotiations  with  the  Russians,  and  on  August  13th  he  surren- 
dered with  his  whole  army  to  General  Rudiger  at  Vilagos.  This 
practically  ended  the  war.  Kossuth  and  Bern  fled  to  Turkey,  where  the 
Porte  refused  to  give  them  up.  Kossuth  afterward  came  to  the  United 
States.  Gorgey  was  able  to  secure  his  personal  safety,  but  the  other 
leaders  received  scant  mercy  from  Haynau  and  his  military  tribunals. 
Hungary  had  to  pay  dearly  for  its  rebellion.  It  lost  all  independence 
and  all  constitutional  freedom,  and  sank  for  a  short  time  into  a  vassal 
province  of  Austria. 

ANOTHER  ITALIAN  WAR. 

Meanwhile  the  temporary  success  of  the  Hungarians  in  the  early 
part  of  1849  had  involved  Austria  in  a  second  Italian  war.  All  the 
attempts  of  England  and  France  to  negotiate  a  final  peace  between 
Austria  and  Sardinia  had  failed.  The  government  at  Vienna  refused  to 
entertain  any  proposal  except  the  complete  restoration  of  Austrian  rule 
and  of  the  gfovernment  allied  with  Austria.  For  Charles  Albert  to 
accept  these  terms,  except  under  the  pressure  of  complete  defeat,  would 
deprive  the  Sardinian  monarchy  for  ever  of  the  respect  and  trust  of 
Italy.  On  March  9th  the  king  took  the  bold  step  of  putting  an  end  to 
the  armistice,  which  had  been  prolonged  since  August,  1848.  It  was 
hoped  the  Austrian  arms  would  be  sufficiently  employed  in  the  Hunga- 
rian war  and  in  the  siege  at  Venice.  But  Radetsky  was  confident  of 
success,  and  hastened  to  engage  in  a  contest  which  he  hoped  would 
finally  settle  affairs  in  Italy.  Instead  of  waiting  to  be  attacked  he  invaded 
Piedmont,  and  in  the  battle  of  Novara  inflicted  a  crushing  defeat  upon 
the  Sardinians,  who  were  commanded  by  the  Polish  general  Chrzanowski 
(March  23d).  So  disastrous  was  the  battle,  and  so  exorbitant  the  terms 
proposed  by  Radetsky,  that  on  the  same  evening  Charles  Albert  abdicated 
in  favor  of  his   eldest  son,  Victor  Emanuel   II.,  and  quitted  Italy  for 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  343 

Oporto,  where  he  died  on  July  28th.  The  new  King  was  married  to  the 
daughter  of  an  Austrian  archdulce,  and  liad  not  inspired  the  same 
invincible  distrust  as  his  father.  Radetsky  now  offered  an  immediate 
armistice,  on  condition  that  Victor  Emanuel  should  pledge  himself  to 
conclude  a  peace  as  soon  as  possible,  to  reduce  his  army  to  a  peace 
footing,  and  to  hand  over  the  fortress  of  Alessandria  to  Austrian  occupa- 
tion as  a  hostage  for  his  good  faith.  These  terms,  though  far  milder 
than  had  been  offered  to  Charles  Albert,  were  resented  as  dishonorable 
in  Turin,  and  the  young  King  had  to  enter  his  capitol  by  night  to  avoid 
the  risk  of  being  insulted  by  his  new  subjects.  Few  men  could  have 
anticipated  that  a  ruler  whose  reign  began  under  such  gloomy  auspices 
would  become  before  its  close  the  recognized  King  of  a  free  and  united 
Italy.  A  revolt  in  Lombardy  which  had  broken  out  when  hostilities 
commenced,  was  put  down  by  the  Austrians  with  prompt  severity. 
Brescia,  the  only  place  which  made  a  conspicuous  resistance,  was  stormed 
by  Haynau,  whose  conduct  on  this  occasion  earned  for  him  the  name  of 
the  "Hyena  of  Brescia,"  and  a  reputation  for  cruelty  which  was 
enhanced  by  his  subsequent  deeds  in  Hungary.  The  final  treaty  between 
Austria  and  Sardinia  (August  6th)  restored  matters  to  their  condition 
before  the  war,  the  defeated  country  having  to  pay  an  indemnity  of 
seventy-five  million  francs. 

ITALIAN  REPUBLICS  CRUSHED. 

After  their  success  in  the  North,  the  Austrians  proceeded  to 
complete  their  work  by  putting  down  the  revolution  in  the  other 
provinces  of  Italy.  Entering  Tuscany,  they  occupied  Florence,  put 
down  the  Republic,  and  restored  the  authority  of  the  grand  duke. 
Leopold  now  returned  from  Gaeta,  revoked  the  constitution  which  he 
had  granted  in  the  previous  year,  and  restored  the  old  system  of  ab- 
solute rule.  Parma,  Bologna  and  Ancona  were  successively  occupied 
by  the  Austrians,  who  would  undoubtedly  have  advanced  upon  Rome 
if  they  had  not  been  anticipated  by  the  French.  General  Oudinot, 
with  8000  men,  landed  at  Civita  Vecchia  on  April  5,  and  at  once 
marched  against  the  city.  The  republican  leaders  determined  on  a 
desperate  resistance,  and  after  seven  hours'  fighting  the  assailants  were 
driven  back  from  the  walls  (April  30).  But  Oudinot  received  rein- 
forcements,  which    enabled    him    to   invest    the    city    with    35,000  men, 


344  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

and,  after  resisting  for  a  month,  Rome  -was  taken  on  July  3. 
Garibaldi,  who  had  been  the  inspiring  leader  of  the  defence,  escaped 
with  his  devoted  followers  to  the  mountains.  Oudinot  put  an  end  to 
the  Roman  republic  by  establishing  a  government  in  the  Pope's  name, 
but  Pius  IX.  refused  to  trust  himself  to  his  foreign  allies,  and  con- 
tinued to  reside  at  Gaeta.  Venice  was  now  completely  isolated  but 
continued  to  make  a  heroic  resistance  until  August  26th,  when  it  was 
compelled,  partly  by  the  bombardment,  and  partly  by  famine,  to  capitu- 
late. Manin,  the  hero  of  the  short-lived  period  of  liberty,  was  allowed 
to  retire  for  the  remainder  of  his  life  into  exile. 

THE  TAIPING  REBELLION. 

The  Taiping  rebellion,  which  broke  out  in  China  in  1S50,  was 
little  noticed  by  the  rest  of  the  world,  but  was  really  one  of  the  most 
colossal  and  destructive  wars  ever  waged.  It  was  organized  by  a 
Hakka  school-teacher  named  Hung  Tsu  Tseuen,  who  had  received 
instruction  from  American  missionaries.  He  gathered  about  him  a 
vast  and  heterogeneous  army,  whose  professed  object  was  to  expel  the 
Tartar  dynasty  and  restore  the  true  Chinese  to  power.  The  rebellion 
made  almost  unhindered  progress,  and  in  1853  Hung  captured  Nan- 
king, the  old  capital  of  the  true  Chinese  dynasties,  and  there  estab- 
lished his  court  as  a  rival  of  the  emperor  at  Pekin.  There  he  lived 
and  maintained  himself,  in  spite  of  the  utmost  effects  of  the  Emperor, 
for  many  years.  The  downfall  of  his  power  and  suppression  of  the 
rebellion  belong  to  a  later  chapter  of  this  book. 

INDIAN  AFFAIRS. 

We  have  already  told  of  the  two  Sikh  wars  and  the  annexation 
of  the  Punjaub  to  British  India,  which  occurred  in  1849.  A  second 
war  with  Burmah  broke  out  in  1852,  on  account  of  the  savagery  of 
the  reigning  King.  A  British  expedition  quickly  captured  Martaban 
and  Rangoon,  in  April,   1852. 

The  city  of  Prome  was  taken  with  slight  trouble  in  October, 
and  on  December  20th  the  maritime  province  of  Pegu  was  annexed  by 
the  British,  and  the  King  was  warned  that  any  further  misbehavior 
on  his  part  would  result  in  the  confiscation  of  all  the  rest  of  his 
dominions. 


H 

r 
w 

H 

Z 

H 


JO 

2 

r, 

> 
•z 

C 


c 
z 

c 


H 
D 
O 

< 

OS 

H 


OS 

O 


H 

:.) 
o 

< 

< 

I 

N 


.S1X)RY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  347 

DEATH  OF  LOPEZ  IN  CUBA. 

The  operations  of  the  fihbuster  Narciso  Lopez  in  Cuba,  in  which 
he  had  much  support  from  the  United  States,  have  elsewhere  been 
noticed.  His  last  expedition  to  the  island  was  made  in  1851,  and 
resulted  in  his  death. 

The  same  year  was  marked  with  a  Montenegrin  uprising  against 
the  Turks,  and  the  year  following  with  a  similar  revolt  in  Bosnia, 
neither  of  which   made   serious    headway    or  effected  important  results. 

IMPERIAL  AMBITIONS. 

From  the  first  Louis  Napoleon  made  it  his  aim  to  abolish  the 
republic  in  France  and  to  revive  the  empire.  In  complete  contrast  to 
Louis  Philippe,  who  had  relied  upon  the  middle  class,  he  sought  sup- 
port from  the  peasants,  the  army,  and  the  priests. 

As  the  period  of  presidency  was  running  out,  and  the  constitution 
prohibited  his  re-election,  it  became  necessary  for  Louis  Napoleon  to 
take  active  measures  to  secure  his  power.  He  was  always  discussing 
schemes  with  his  associates,  but  could  never  make  up  his  mind  as  to 
the  exact  moment  for  executing  them.  As  his  designs  became  more 
and  more  apparent,  the  assembly  began  to  show  distrust  and  hostility. 
In  January,  1851,  General  Changarnier  was  dismissed  from  the  com- 
mand of  the  Paris  garrison  and  the  national  guard,  apparently  because 
his  regiments  had  not  raised  the  crj^  of  "Vive  I'Empereur!"  at  the 
recent  reviews.  The  assembly  declared  its  confidence  in  the  general 
and  its  want  of  confidence  in  the  ministry.  This  compelled  the  retire- 
ment of  the  ministers,  but  their  successors  were  equally  docile  to  the 
president,  and  equally  unacceptable  to  the  legislature.  Petitions  got 
up  by  Napoleon's  agents,  poured  in  from  the  provinces  to  demand  a 
revision  of  the  constitution,  but  the  requisite  majority  of  votes  in  the 
assembly  could  not  be  obtained,  and  the  project  was  dropped.  Napo- 
leon was  determined  to  throw  himself  upon  the  support  of  the  people. 
The  assembly  had  made  itself  very  unpopular  by  the  law  of  May  30, 
1850,  which  had  reduced  the  number  of  electors  to  three  millions. 
The  ministers  proposed  the  repeal  of  the  law,  but  the  majority  refused 
to  give  up  their  measure.  Thus  the  President  posed  as  the  champion 
of  democratic  liberties  against  the  oligarchical  and  reactionary  assem- 
bly.    At  last  Louis  Napoleon  considered  that  his  time  had  come,  and 


34S  STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

fixed  December  2d,  die   anniversary    of  Austerlitz,  as    the    date  of  the 
long-meditated  coup  d'etat. 

THE  COUP  D'ETAT. 

The  necessary  preparations  had  been  carefully  made  by  Napo- 
leon's agents,  M.  de  Morny,  Generals  St.  Arnaud  and  Magnan,  and 
M.  de  Maupas,  the  prefect  of  police.  On  the  night  of  the  first,  while 
suspicions  were  lulled  by  a  grand  party  at  the  Elysee,  the  troops 
were  distributed,  and  the  necessary  placards  and  proclamations  were 
printed  at  the  government  press.  The  first  blow  was  struck  by  the 
imprisonment  of  the  most  dangerous  opponents.  Generals  Cavaignac, 
Changarnier,  Lamoriciere,  Bedeau,  together  with  Thiers,  Victor  Hugo, 
and  Eugene  Sue,  were  simultaneously  seized  in  the  middle  of  the 
night  and  dispersed  to  different  prisons.  In  the  morning  proclamations 
appeared  in  all  the  streets  announcing  that  the  National  Assembly 
had  dissolved,  that  a  new  election  was  to  take  place  on  December 
14,  that  universal  suffrage  was  restored,  and  that  Paris  and  the  De- 
partment of  the  Seine  were  in  a  state  of  siege.  A  new  ministry  was 
announced,  in  which  Morny  was  minister  of  the  interior ;  St.  Arnaud, 
of  war;  M.  Rouher,  of  justice,  and  M.  Fould,  of  finance.  In  an  "appeal 
to  the  people"  Louis  Napoleon  proposed  that  the  executive  head  of 
the  government  should  be  chosen  for  ten  years,  and  that  a  Council 
of  State,  a  Senate,  and  a  Legislative  Assembly  should  be  created  on 
the  model  of  his  uncle's  constitution  of  the  i8th  Brumaire.  Mean- 
while, about  250  deputies  met  in  the  Palais  Bourbon,  and  were  pre- 
paring a  protest  against  the  action  of  the  President,  when  the  hall 
was  surrounded  by  troops,  and  they  found  themselves  prisoners.  By 
this  act  the  opposition  was  deprived  of  any  common  centre  of  union. 
Isolated  revolts  took  place  on  the  next  two  days,  and  the  usual  barri- 
cades were  erected,  but  the  troops  gained  an  easy  victory,  though  not 
without  considerable  bloodshed.  By  the  evening  of  the  4th  the  suc- 
cess of  the  coup  d'etat  was  secured.  The  plebiscite  was  commenced 
on  December  20,  and  resulted  in  an  enormous  majority  in  favor  of 
the  new  constitution.  The  number  of  recorded  votes  was  7,439,216 
to  646,757.  The  result  of  this  vote  was  that  Napoleon  became  Presi- 
dent for  ten  years,  and  the  chief  constitutional  checks  upon  his  power 
were  removed. 


STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED   \'EARS.  349 

RESTORATION  OF  THE  EMPIRE. 

Like  all  restored  Princes,  Louis  Napoleon  was  an  imitator.  On 
December  2d  he  had  closely  copied  the  iSth  Brumaire  ;  his  constitution, 
which  was  formally  issued  on  January  15th,  returned  to  the  system  of 
the  first  Napoleon  ;  the  uncle  had  been  Consul,  the  nephew  was  Presi- 
dent. To  complete  the  external  parallel,  it  was  only  necessary  to  get 
rid  of  the  republican  title  by  reviving  the  empire,  and  it  was  certain  that 
this  would  not  be  long  delayed.  The  gold  eagles  were  restored  to  the 
standards  ;  Napoleon's  name  was  substituted  for  that  of  the  Republic  in 
the  public  prayers  ;  the  National  Guard  was  re-constituted  ;  the  President 
took  up  his  residence  in  the  Tuileries.  In  the  autumn  Louis  Napoleon 
made  a  grand  tour  through  the  provinces  and  was  everywhere  received 
with  shouts  of  "  Vive  I'Empereur  !  "  The  Senate  was  directed  to  discuss 
the  matter,  and  it  was  decided  once  more  to  have  recourse  to  plebiscite. 
The  proposal  was  that  Louis  Napoleon  should  be  chosen  hereditary 
Emperor  of  the  French,  with  the  right  of  settling  the  succession  among 
the  members  of  his  family.  It  was  carried  without  a  discussion  by 
7,824,12910253,145.  On  December  2d,  1852,  the  new  Emperor  was  pro- 
claimed as  Napoleon  III. 

REBUILDING  PARIS. 

A  great  revival  of  material  prosperity  followed  the  restoration  of 
order,  and  the  ardent  pursuit  of  money-making  proved  an  excellent  salve 
for  political  discontent.  The  constitution  of  January,  1852,  was  renewed 
with  a  few  modifications,  which  increased  the  power  of  the  Emperor,  and 
further  humiliated  the  Corps  Legislatif.  The  government  adopted  the 
economical  fallacy  that  unproductive  expenditure  is  beneficial  to  the 
laborers.  A  great  part  of  Paris  was  pulled  down  to  make  room  for 
more  magnificent  buildings.  The  Rue  de  Rivoli  was  e.Ktended  almost 
to  the  Faubourg  St.  Antoine,  and  thus  was  demolished  the  labyrinth  of 
lanes  which  formerly  surrounded  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  and  made  it 
always  liable  to  a  surprise.  The  first  duty  of  the  founder  of  the 
new  dynasty  was  to  marry.  Napoleon  began  by  looking  round  for 
a  Princess  ;  but  he  found  the  established  dynasties  so  cool  in  response 
to  his  overtures  that  he  determined  to  conciliate  democratic  prejudices 
by  an  alliance  with  a  subject.  His  choice  fell  upon  Donna  Eugenia  di 
Montijo,  the  widow  of  a  Spanish  general  who  had  fought  under  Napo- 
leon I.,  and  the  marriage  was  solemnized  in  January-,  1853. 


CHAPTER  XXVn. 


Barth's   Explorations  in  Africa— Necrology — London  World's  Feiir— Cold 
in  Australia — Helmholtz  and  the  Ophthalmoscope — Caloric  Engines — 
Personal — Kossuth  and  His  Visit — Reception  in  New  York — Death 
of  Mr.  Clay— His  Career  at  Washington— Death  of  Mr.  Web- 
ster— His  Early  Career — In   Public   Life — The  Great   Ex- 
pounder of  the  Constitution — Close  of  His  Career — 
Submarine    Boats — Submarine    Telegraphy— The 
Brothers  Brett— The  First  Cable— Triumph 
at  Last— Extension  of  the  System. 


ATTENTION  was  called  to  the  as  yet  little  known  continent  of 
Africa  at  the  middle  of  the  century  by  the  explorations  of  Dr. 
Heinrich  Barth,  the  German  naturalist.  His  most  important 
journey  in  Africa  was  undertaken  in  company  with  two  other 
explorers.  Upon  their  death  in  1851,  however,  he  pursued  his  way  alone, 
and  during  the  next  four  years  made  one  of  the  most  important  tours 
that  had  yet  been  effected  in  the  Dark  Continent.  His  observations 
were  of  great  scientific  interest,  and  did  much  toward  the  ultimate  open- 
ing up  of  the  continent  to  commerce  and  civilization.  Indeed,  his  labors 
may  truly  be  said  to  have  marked  the  beginning  of  modern  African 
exploration.  The  great  missionary  Livingstone  was  at  the  same  time  at 
work  further  south  in  Africa,  and  he  discovered  Lake  Ngami  in  1849. 

NECROLOGY. 

The  death  of  ex-President  Polk,  of  the  United  States,  occurred  in 

1849.  Wordsworth,  Poet-Laureate  of  England  and  chief  of  the  so-called 
"  Lake  School  "  of  poets,  died  in  1850.  Sir  Robert  Peel  died  in  the  same 
year,  having  accomplished  more  for  his  country  than  most  men  of  his 
time.     Balzac,  one  of  the  world's  chief  writers  of  fiction,  passed  away  in 

1850,  also. 

LONDON  WORLD'S  FAIR. 

The  opening  of  the  World's  Fair  in  London  was  an  event  of  uni- 
versal interest.     It  was  the  first  of  the  noteworthy  series  of  such  exhibi- 

350 


V. 
V. 

c 


•y. 

C 


o 

03 

> 

H 

W 
O 

Ci, 
O 

w 

H 
H 
< 

05 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  353 

tions  which  has  since  been  held  In  various  capitals  of  the  world.  The 
credit  for  the  suggestion  of  it,  and  Indeed  tor  the  successful  execution  of 
the  plan,  must  be  given  to  Albert,  the  Prince  Consort,  who  was  at  that  time 
President  of  the  London  Society  of  Arts.  An  enormous  building — for 
that  time — was  erected  in  Hyde  Park,  constructed  entirely  of  iron  and 
o^lass,  and  accordingly  known  as  the  Crystal  Palace.  It  covered  more 
than  twenty  acres  of  ground.  The  total  cost  of  the  enterprise,  including 
construction  of  the  building,  maintenance,  superintendence,  etc.,  amounted 
to  nearly  $1,500,000,  and  the  receipts  from  entrance  fees,  etc.,  were  more 
than  $2,500,000.  As  a  business  enterprise,  therefore,  it  was  a  great 
success,  probably  greater  than  any  of  those  that  have  succeeded  it. 

Two  years  later  a  similar  exhibition,  though  on  a  smaller  scale,  was 
held  in  New  York,  in  a  building  also  called  the  Crystal  Palace.  It  was 
of  great  service  in  stimulating  industry  and  art,  but  was  a  financial 
failure.  The  building  was  a  few  years  later  destroyed  by  fire,  with  nearly 
all  its  contents. 

The  year  1853  saw  a  third  World's  Fair  in  Dublin,  which  was  a 
creditable  display  of  art  and  industry,  but  was  a  financial  failure. 

The  first  World's  Fair  in  Paris  was  opened  in  1 85 5  as  a  private 
enterprise,  but  with  a  Government  guarantee  against  loss. 

GOLD  IN  AUSTRALIA, 

We  have  related  the  story  of  the  discovery  of  gold  in  California  in 
1849.  Two  years  later,  in  1851,  rich  deposits  of  the  precious  metal  were 
discovered  in  Australia,  and  a  great  rush  of  fortune-seekers  to  that  country 
ensued,  similar  to  that  which  had  gone  to  California.  The  result  was  the 
mining  of  vast  quantities  of  gold  from  some  of  the  richest  fields  ever 
found  in  the  world.  But  more  than  that,  an  impetus  was  given  to  the 
general  settlement  of  Australia  and  the  development  of  that  countrj'  into 
a  group  of  populous  and  prosperous  colonies,  which  in  time  were  to  be 
united  into  a  single  mighty  Commonwealth. 

HELMHOLTZ  AND  THE  OPHTHALMOSCOPE. 

A  discovery  of  even  greater  value  to  mankind  than  all  the  gold  of 

Australia  was  made  in  the  same  year  by  a  German  professor  at  Konigs- 

berg.     This  was  the  discover)^,  or  invention,  of  the  ophthalmoscope  by 

Herman  Helmholtz.     This  great  scientist  reflected  one  day  upon  the  fact 
19 


354  STORY    OF   ONE    HU.>rDRED    YEARS. 

that  while  it  is  impossible  in  daylight  to  see  clearly  into  the  interior  of  a 
room  on  the  opposite  side  of  a  street,  it  is  quite  easy  to  do  so  at  night 
when  the  interior  of  the  room  is  artificially  illuminated.  He  observed, 
also,  that  it  was  possible  to  see  the  interior  of  the  room  plainly  by  day 
by  the  use  of  a  mirror  which  would  throw  a  strong  light  into  it.  These 
simple  observations  led  him  to  devise  the  ophthalmoscope,  or  eye-mirror, 
by  which  instrument  the  interior  of  the  human  eye  is  brightly  illuminated 
and  its  thorough  examination  made  possible  and  easy.  This  invention 
revolutionized  the  science  of  medicine  and  surgery  so  far  as  it  applied  to 
the  eye. 

Later  in  his  distinguished  career  at  Bonn,  Helmholtz  made  many 
other  scientific  discoveries  and  inventions  of  orreat  value,  and  when  he 
died,  in  1894,  he  left  a  record  of  usefulness  surpassed  by  but  few  men 
of  the  century. 

CALORIC  ENGINE^S. 

John  Ericsson,  the  celebrated  Swedish  engineer,  had  long  been 
e.xperimenting  with  caloric  or  hot  air  engines,  designed  to  take  the  j^lace 
of  steam.  He  had  in  1838  invented  the  screw  propellor  for  steamships, 
which  is  now  in  almost  universal  use.  hi  1839  he  came  to  the  United 
States,  and  in  1843  revolutionized  naval  warfare  by  introducing  the  screw 
propeller  into  the  United  States  Navy.  In  that  same  year  he  success- 
fully introduced  also  the  principle  of  twin  screws.  Finally,  in  1853,  he 
completed  a  ship,  which  he  named  the  "Ericsson,"  propelled  by  caloric 
engines.  The  caloric  engine  did  not,  however  come  into  general  favor, 
and  Ericsson  turned  his  attention  to  other  things,  of  which  we  shall  hear 
more  at  a  later  date. 

Another  engineering  enterprise  of  the  highest  importance  in  the 
same  year  was  the  beginning  of  surveys  for  a  railroad  across  the  United 
States  to  the  Pacific  Coast,  which  was,  however,  not  to  be  completed  for 
many  years. 

PERSONAL. 

The  death  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  in  1852,  seemed  an  irre- 
parable loss  to  Great  Britain,  and  evoked  from  Alfred  Tennyson  one  of 
the  finest  elegiac  odes  in  the  world's  literature,  llie  same  year  saw  the 
death  of  Thomas  Moore,  the  poet.  Audubon,  the  great  naturalist  ; 
Cooper,  the  first  great  American  romance  writer  ;  and  Turner,  one  of 
the  world's  greatest  painters,  had  died  the  year  before. 


STORY    OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS.  355 

KOSSUTH  AND  HIS  VISIT. 

The  year  1852  was  signalized  by  the  arrival  in  America  of  Louis 
Kossuth,  accompanied  by  various  other  Hungarians,  who  visited  the 
United  States   by  the   invitation   of  the  American  Government. 

Kossuth  was  born  on  the  27th  of  April,  1S02,  at  Monok,  in  the 
county  of  Zemplin,  in  Hungary.  His  parents  were  of  humble  origin. 
He  educated  himself;  and  being  a  young  man  distinguished  for  his  talents 
and  for  great  energy  of  character  ;  and,  moreover,  inspired  with  patriotic 
love  for  his  country,  which  was  suffering  and  had  long  suffered  under  the 
power  of  Austria,  he  enlisted  himself  with  others  in  schemes  for  her 
emancipation.  Rising  in  the  estimation  of  his  countr}'men,  he  at  length 
became  Governor  of  Hungary,  and  in  connection  with  Gorgey,  Bern  and 
kindred  spirits,  seriously  attempted  to  throw  off  the  Austrian  yoke,  in 
which,  perhaps,  they  would  have  succeeded  but  for  the  interposition  and 
influence  of  Russia  in  favor  of  Austrian  oppression.  At  length  Kossuth 
and  several  of  his  friends  were  obliged  to  take  refuge  in  and  put 
themselves  under  the  protection  of  Turkey. 

The  knowledge  of  Kossuth's  attempt  to  liberate  his  country,  in 
connection  with  the  efforts  of  other  Hungarian  patriots,  their  self-denials, 
hardships,  sacrifices  and  sufferings  in  the  cause,  reached  the  United 
States,  and  kindled  a  deep  sympathy  for  these  down-trodden  and  self- 
exiled  jjatriots.  The  public  sentiment  in  America  was  on  their  side,  and 
a  desire  was  aroused  in  all  parts  of  the  land  that  they  should  find  an 
asylum  on  these  western  shores.  Consequently,  before  the  adjournment 
of  Congress  in  the  spring  of  1851,  a  joint  resolution  was  adopted  author- 
izing the  President  to  grant  the  use  of  a  ship  attached  to  the  American 
squadron  in  the  Mediterranean  to  transport  these  Hungarian  exiles  to 
this  country.  Accordingly,  on  being  released  by  the  sublime  Porte,  they 
took  passage  in  the  steamship  "Mississippi"  for  the  American  shores. 
Kossuth  and  suit,  however,  stopped  in  England  for  a  time,  and  then 
pursued  their  voyage  to  America  on  board  the  steamer  "  Humboldt." 
They  arrived  in  New  York  on  Tuesday,  December  4th.  At  the  request 
of  the  Mayor  of  New  York  he  remained  for  a  day  on  Staten  Island,  at 
the  residence  of  Dr.  Doane,  until  the  authorities  of  New  York  could 
prepare  for  his  public  reception  in  that  city.  Meanwhile  the  citizens  of 
Staten  Island  gave  him  a  public  welcome.  On  Saturday  he  entered  the 
city  of  New  York. 


350  STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED   YEARS. 

RECEPTION   IN   NEW  YORK. 

On  the  evening  of  the  12th  the  corporation  of  that  city  entertained 
Kossuth  at  a  splendid  banquet.  He  made  a  long  and  able  speech,  ex- 
plaining the  purposes  which  had  brought  him  to  this  country,  and  the  ac- 
tion which  he  desired  should  be  taken  by  the  people,  and  vindicating  their 
propriety  and  necessity.  Three  distinct  measures  he  desired.  First,  a 
declaration  conjointly  with  England  against  the  interference  of  Russia  in 
the  affairs  of  Hungary.  Second,  a  declaration  that  the  United  States 
will  maintain  commerce  with  European  nations  whether  they  are  in  a 
state  of  revolution  or  not.  And  thirdly,  that  the  people  would  recog- 
nize Hungary  as  an  independent  nation.  If  these  three  steps  were  taken 
by  the  people  and  government  of  the  United  States,  in  concert  with  those 
of  England,  he  was  confident  that  Russian  intervention  would  be  pre- 
vented and  Hungary  be  enabled  to  assert  and  maintain  her  position  as 
one  among  the  independent  nations  of  the  earth.  He  also  appealed  to 
the  people  to  aid  Hungary  in  gifts  and  loans  of  money.  On  the  evening 
of  Monday,  December  15th,  the  members  of  the  press  in  the  city  of  New 
York  also  gave  Kossuth  a  splendid  banquet  at  the  Astor  House.  This 
was  followed  on  the  i8th  by  a  public  reception  to  him  by  the  bar  of  New 
York.  On  this  latter  occasion  he  made  a  speech  devoted  mainly  to  the 
position  that  the  intervention  of  Russia  in  the  affairs  of  Hungary  was  a 
gross  violation  of  the  law  of  nations,  deserving  the  name  of  piracy,  and 
that  the  United  States  was  bound  alike  by  interest  and  duty  to  protest 
against  it.  On  the  20th  he  addressed  a  large  company  of  ladies,  in  a 
speech  of  exquisite  beauty  and  touching  eloquence.  On  the  23d  he  left 
New  York  for  Philadelphia,  and  passing  through  Baltimore,  at  both  of 
which  places  he  spent  some  days,  he  reached  Washington  on  Tuesday,  the 
30th,  and  was  received  at  the  cars  by  a  committee  of  the  United  States 
Senate.  President  Fillmore  received  him  at  the  Executive  Mansion  on 
Wednesday,  the  31st,  and  during  the  week  following  he  was  formally  re- 
ceived into  both  houses  of  Congress.  On  the  12th  of  January  Kossuth 
left  Washington  lor  Annapolis,  and  proceeded  thence  westward  to  Cin- 
cinnati, visiting  Pittsburg, .  Harrisburg,  and  other  places  on  his  way. 
Meanwhile  public  opinion  became  divided  as  to  the  propriety  of  acceding 
to  his  request  that  this  country  should  take  an  active  part  in  the  struggle 
of  Europe,  but  there  was  no  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  wonderful 
ability  which  his  speeches  displayed. 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  357 

From  Washington  Kossuth  proceeded  to  visit  various  places  in  the 
South  and  West,  and  at  length,  by  invitation,  visited  Boston,  where  he 
had  a  public  reception  from  the  Legislature,  and  was  honored  by  a  legis- 
lative banquet  in  Faneuil  Hall.  His  speeches  continued  to  be  devoted  to 
an  exposition  of  the  duty  of  nations  to  aid  each  other  in  their  struggles 
for  freedom,  and  to  urging  the  claims  of  Hungary  upon  the  people  of  the 
United  States. 

After  visiting  the  principal  towns  of  Massachusetts  he  had  a  public 
reception  at  Albany,  whence  he  proceeded  to  Buffalo,  Niagara  and  other 
cities.     At  length,  returning  to  New  York,  he  embarked  for  England. 

DEATH   OF   MR.   CLAY. 

Henry  Clay  was  born  in  Hanover  County,  Virginia,  on  the  12th  of 
April,  1777.  His  death  took  place  at  Washington,  D.  C,  on  the  29th  of 
June,  1852^  in  the  seventy-sixth  year  of  his  age.  He  was  the  son  of  John 
Clay,  a  Baptist  clergyman,  in  indigent  circumstances,  who  died  when  Henry 
was  five  years  old,  leaving  seven  children  to  the  care  of  a  most  excellent 
mother,  who  ten  years  afterward  again  married  and  removed  to  Ken- 
tucky. Henry  remained  some  years  in  Virginia,  where  he  devoted  him- 
self to  the  study  of  law  under  the  distinguished  Chancellor  Wythe.  On 
receiving  a  license  to  practice  law  in  1797,  he  removed  from  Richmond 
to  Kentucky,  where  he  opened  an  office.  His  first  public  station  was 
that  of  representative  in  the  State  Legislature  ;  and  while  a  member  of 
that  body  he  became  involved  in  a  duel  with  Humphrey  Marshall,  in 
which  both  combatants  were  slightly  wounded.  The  quarrel  between 
these  two  gentlemen  grew  out  of  a  resolution  introduced  by  Mr.  Clay  in 
which  he  proposed  that  each  member  should  clothe  himself  entirely  in 
American  fabrics. 

HIS  CAREER  AT  WASHINGTON. 

In  1809  Mr.  Clay  was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate  to  fill  a 
vacancy,  to  which  body  and  for  a  similar  purpose  he  had  been  elected  in 
1806,  serving  in  the  latter  case  only  a  single  session,  and  from  1809,  but 
two  sessions.  In  181 1  he  was  elected  for  the  first  time  to  the  House  of 
Representatives,  of  which  he  was  chosen  speaker.  He  was  a  strong  ad- 
vocate of  the  war  with  Great  Britain,  and  to  his  influence  with  some  few 
other  master-spirits  that  measure  was  finally  carried.  In  January,  18 13, 
he  resigned  his  place  in  Congress  in  order  to  proceed  to  Europe  as  one 


35 S  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

of  five  commissioners  to  negotiate  a  treaty  of  peace,  meeting  the  British 
commissioners,  first  at  Gottingen,  and  afterward  at  Ghent,  where  a  treaty 
of  peace  was  signed  on  the  i8th  of  December,  1814.  In  September, 
1815,  Mr.  Clay  returned  to  the  United  States,  when  he  found  himself  re- 
elected to  Congress,  of  which,  on  its  assembling  in  December,  he  was 
re-chosen  speaker.  In  subsequent  years  he  signalized  himself  by  his 
earnest  advocacy  of  protection,  of  home  industry,  national  internal  im- 
provements, the  recognition  of  South  American  and  Greek  independ- 
ence, etc.,  etc. 

In  1824  he  became  a  candidate  for  the  Presidency  of  the  United 
States,  in  connection  with  Adams,  Jackson,  Crawford  and  Calhoun.  The 
election  was  finally  carried  to  the  House  of  Representatives,  where  the 
choice  being  confined  to  Messrs.  Adams  and  Jackson,  Mr.  Clay  decided 
to  cast  his  influence  in  favor  of  Mr.  Adams.  This  decision  was  deeply  re- 
sented by  the  partisans  of  the  disappointed  candidates,  who  charged  him 
for  so  doing  with  "bargafn  and  corruption  ;"  especially  as  he  accepted 
soon  after  at  the  hands  of  Mr.  Adams  the  office  of  Secretary  of  State. 

In  1 83 1  Mr.  Clay  was  again  returned  to  the  United  States  Senate, 
where  he  advocated  internal  improvements,  the  re-charter  of  the  United 
States  Bank,  and  a  distribution  among  the  States  of  the  proceeds  of 
sales  of  public  lands  for  purposes  of  education  and  internal  improve- 
ment. He  was  again  a  candidate  for  the  Presidency  against  General 
Jackson,  the  latter  of  whom,  however,  proved  to  have  in  the  sequel  an 
overwhelming  majority. 

In  1844  Mr.  Clay  was  unanimously  nominated  for  President  by  the 
Whie  National  Convention  at  Baltimore  ;  but  on  the  occurrence  of  the 
election  he  was  defeated  by  Mr.  Polk,  who  received  1 70  of  the  electoral 
votes,  Mr.  Clay  receiving  but  105. 

In  1848  Mr.  Clay  was  re-elected  to  the  Senate  by  the  Legislature  of 
Kentucky  by  a  vote  nearly  or  quite  unanimous.  At  the  regular  ses- 
sion in  1849  he  took  his  seat.  At  this  time,  notwithstanding  his  advanced 
age,  he  was  erect,  buoyant  and  active,  as  in  his  more  youthful  days.  His 
labors  through  that  long  and  memorable  session  were  unsurpassed,  and 
his  attempts  to  effect  a  compromise  or  adjustment  of  the  question  re- 
specting slavery  in  the  Territories,  the  admission  of  California,  etc., 
baffled  at  the  outset,  were  ultimately  crowned  with  success,  as  we  have 
had  occasion  to  record  in  a  previous  page.     At  the  close  of  the  Thirty- 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  359 

first  Congress  Mr.  Clay  returned  to  Kentucky  in  feeble  health,  but  re- 
turned ag-ain  to  Washington  in  December.  His  health,  however,  was  so 
broken  and  evidently  failing,  that  he  scarcely  took  his  seat  in  the  Senate 
at  all,  and  was  soon  obliged  to  keep  to  his  room,  and  ultimately,  his 
bed.  "  Finally,  after  a  protracted  struggle  between  the  native  vigor  of 
his  constitution  and  the  relentless  progress  of  his  disease,"  he  finished 
his  course,  expressing  toward  the  close  of  life,  as  he  had  often  done 
during  the  period  of  his  confinement,  his  hope  of  eternal  life  through 
Him  who  came  to  bring  "life  and  immortality  to  light."  He  had  for 
several  years  been  a  member  of  the  Episcopal  Church. 

DEATH   OF  MR.  WEBSTER. 

Amongr  the  most  sio-nal  events  during  Mr.  Fillmore's  administration 
was  the  death  of  Mr.  Webster,  some  account  of  whom  belongs  to  this 
place,  especially  concerning  his  connection  at  the  time  with  the  Govern- 
ment. 

The  ancestors  of  Daniel  Webster  came  originally  from  Scotland. 
His  father,  grandfather  and  great-grandfather  were  named  Ebenezer,  and 
were  descendants  of  Thomas  Webster,  one  of  the  earliest  settlers  of 
New  Hampshire.  His  father  was  for  several  years  a  member  of  the 
Legislature  of  New  Hampshire,  and  died  while  discharging  the  duty  of 
judge  of  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas.  He  was  a  man  of  superior  intel- 
lect. His  mother  was  Abigail  Eastman,  a  lady  of  Welsh  extraction,  and 
distinguished  for  her  powers  of  mind.  She  was  the  mother  of  five  chil- 
dren, two  boys,  Daniel  and  Ezekiel,  and  three  daughters. 

Daniel  Webster  was  born  on  the  iSth  of  January,  17S2,  in  the  town 
of  Salisbury,  Merrimack  County,  then  Hillsboro,  New  Hampshire.  The 
house  where  he  was  born  is  still  standing,  about  two  and  a  half  miles 
from  the  beautiful  Merrimack  River,  and  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  a 
loe  cabin,  which  his  father  built,  and  the  first  ever  erected  in  that  sec- 
tion  of  country. 

HIS  EARLY  CAREER. 

Mr.  Webster  was  first  taught  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  by  his 
mother,  who  treated  him  with  partial  kindness  because  of  his  feeble- 
ness when  a  child.  From  her  lips  also  he  first  received  the  vital  truths 
of  the  Bible,  and  from  her  hands  the  first  copy  of  the  sacred  volume 
he  ever  owned.     The  men  who  had  the  honor  of  tiie  first  teaching  in  a 


360  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

public  manner  this  afterward  distinguished  individual  were  Thomas 
Chase  and  James  Tappan,  the  latter  of  whom  died  in  1852,  at  Glou- 
cester, Mass.,  at  a  very  advanced  age.  As  late  as  July  of  that  year  Mr. 
Webster  remitted  from  Boston  twenty  dollars  to  his  then  aged  and  in- 
firm schoolmaster,  accompanied  by  a  letter  in  which  he  said,  "I  came  to- 
day from  the  very  spot  in  which  you  taught  me,  and  to  me  a  most 
delightful  spot  it  is.  The  river  and  the  hills  are  as  beautiful  as  ever,  but 
the  graves  of  my  father  and  mother,  and  brothers  and  sisters,  and  early 
friends,  gave  it  to  me  something  of  the  appearance  of  the  city  ot  the 
dead.     But  let  us  not  repine." 

Mr.  Webster's  advantages  of  early  education  were  exceedingly 
slender.  In  summer  he  worked  on  the  farm,  and  in  winter  only  went  tc 
school.  The  principal  district  school  that  he  attended  was  three  miles 
from  his  father's  residence,  and  his  path  thither  was  often  through  deep 
snow.  When  fourteen  years  old  he  spent  a  few  months  at  Philips' 
Academy,  Exeter,  then  under  the  care  of  Dr.  Benjamin  Abbots.  While 
here  he  was  first  called  upon  to  speak  in  public  on  the  stage.  But  the 
effort  was  a  failure.  The  moment  he  began  he  became  embarrassed  and 
burst  into  tears.  In  after  years  he  said  of  himself:  "  Many  a  piece  did 
I  commit  to  memory  and  recite  and  rehearse  in  my  own  room,  over  and 
over  again,  yet  when  the  day  came,  when  the  school  collected  to  hear  the 
declamations,  when  my  name  was  called,  and  I  saw  all  eyes  turned  to  my 
seat,  I  could  not  raise  myself  from  it."  At  fifteen  he  entered  Dart- 
mouth College,  where  he  pursued  his  studies  in  a  manner  highly  credita- 
ble to  himself  and  gratifying  to  his  friends.  He  was  graduated  in  1801  ; 
but  so  disappointed  was  he  in  not  receiving  what  he  thought  he  was  en- 
titled to  of  the  honors  of  the  college,  that  at  the  conclusion  of  the  com- 
mencement exercises,  he  deliberately  tore  up  the  diploma  which  had  been 
bestowed  upon  him,  exclaiming  as  he  threw  it  to  the  winds,  "  My  indus- 
try may  make  a  great  man,  but  this  miserable  parchment  cannot,"  and 
immediately  mounting  his  horse,  departed  for  home. 

IN  PUBLIC  LIFE. 

The  following  year  he  taught  an  academy  at  Freyburg,  Maine,  and 
then  betook  himself  to  the  study  of  law,  first  in  Salisbury  and  then  in 
Boston,  in  the  ofiice  of  Christopher  Gore,  afterward  Governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts ;  was  admitted  to    the    bar   in    1805  ;  practiced  a  short  time  in 


STORY   OF  ONE    HUNDRED   YEARS.  36 1 

Boscawen,  N.  H.;  removing  whence  in  1807  to  Portsmouth,  he  married 
next  year  Grace  Fletcher,  of  Hopkinton,  N.  H.,  by  whom  he  had  four 
children,  of  whom  but  one,  Fletcher,  survived  him.  The  mother  died 
suddenly  while  on  her  way,  with  her  husband,  to  Washington  late  in 
1828. 

Mr.  Webster  continued  the  practice  of  law  in  Portsmouth  for  nine 
years,  where  he  acquired  a  very  extensive  practice  and  an  enviable  repu- 
tation. In  181 2  he  was  elected  for  the  first  time  to  Congress,  after  a 
most  violent  contest.  In  Congress  he  arose  at  once  to  a  high  rank 
among  parliamentary  debaters.  He  opposed  the  invasion  of  Canada,  but 
strongly  advocated  the  enlargement  of  the  navy  and  the  prosecution  of 
the  war  on  the  ocean.  In  August,  18 16,  he  removed  to  Boston,  where 
in  his  practice  as  an  advocate  and  lawyer  he  often  came  in  contact  with 
such  men  as  Dextor,  Prescott,  Otis,  Sullivan,  Shaw,  Gorham  and  Hub- 
bard. His  fame  as  a  jurist  was  greatly  increased  by  his  defence  of  Dart- 
mouth College  against  the  assumptions  of  the  Legislature  of  New  Ham- 
shire,  to  alter  and  modify  its  charter  at  pleasure  ;  a  claim  which  was  sus- 
tained by  the  courts  of  New  Hampshire,  but  overruled  by  the  United 
States  Supreme  Court  on  Mr.  Webster's  argument  in  18 18. 

••  THE  GREAT  EXPOUNDER  OF  THE  CONSTITUTION." 

In  1829  he  delivered  his  famous  speeches  against  Mr.  Hayne  on  the 
right  of  a  State  to  nullify  an  act  of  Congress.  These  were,  perhaps,  the 
greatest  intellectual  achievements  of  his  life.  They  practically  settled 
the  question  of  nullification  in  all  time  to  come.  Mr.  Webster  continued 
a  member  of  the  Senate  till  March  4,  1841,  and  was  a  leading  partici- 
pator in  the  discussions  growing  out  of  the  attempted  re-charter  of  the 
United  States  Bank,  Tariff  Compromise  of  1834,  the  Removal  of  De- 
posits, the  Specie  Circular,  the  Expunging  Resolutions,  etc.  From  an 
original  free-trader,  he  became  a  warm  and  impressive  advocate  of  Pro- 
tection to  Home  Industry,  regarding  the  policy  of  the  country  as  settled 
by  the  acts  of  1824  and  1828,  and  the  interests  thereby  called  into  exist- 
ence justly  entitled  to  legislative  support.  He  therefore  opposed  the 
Tariff  Compromise  of  1834,  which  nevertheless  prevailed. 

On  the  election  of  General  Harrison  to  the  Presidency,  Mr.  Webster 
became  Secretary  of  State,  a  post  which  he  continued  to  occupy  until 
late  in  1842.     While  Secretary  he  negotiated  with  Lord  Ashburton  the 


362  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

treaty  of  Washington,  by  which  he  settled  the  north-eastern  boundary  oi 
Maine.  He  now  retired  to  private  Hfe  for  a  season,  but  in  1845,  on  the 
retirement  of  Mr.  Choate,  he  was  again  elected  to  the  Senate.  In  1846 
he  advocated  the  Oregon  boundary  treaty  ;  in  1848  he  spoke  against  the 
claim  of  the  South  to  e.xtend  slavery  into  the  new  Territories.  He  was 
in  favor  of  the  compromise  measures  which  were  designed  as  an  adjust- 
ment of  exciting  questions  between  the  North  and  the  South  ;  he  be- 
lieved in  the  necessity  and  importance  of  the  fugitive  slave  law  as  a 
means  of  maintaining  the  peace  and  integrity  oi  the  Union. 

In  1836  Mr.  Webster  was,  for  the  first  time,  proposed  as  a  candidate 
for  the  Presidency.  Massachusetts  gave  him  her  electoral  votes,  but  he 
received  the  votes  of  no  other  State.  Again,  in  the  year  1848,  his  name 
was  submitted  to  the  Whig  National  Convention  at  Philadelphia,  as  it  was 
also  in  1852  to  the  Whig  National  Convention  at  Baltimore.  But  in  the 
former  Convention  his  vote  was  less  than  thirty,  and  in  the  latter  it  did 
not  exceed  on  any  one  ballot  thirty-three. 

CLOSE  OF  HIS  CAREER. 

On  the  accession  of  Mr.  Fillmore  to  the  Presidency  in  1850,  Mr. 
Webster  was  again  called  to  the  Secretaryship,  an  office  which  he  con- 
tinued to  hold  till  his  death. 

In  the  summer  of  1852,  his  health  requiring  relaxation  and  repose, 
he  left  Washington  for  his  country  residence  at  Marshfield,  Mass.,  where 
soon  after  he  was  severely  injured  by  being  thrown  from  his  carriage. 
From  the  effect  of  this  fall  he  never  recovered,  but  continued  to  decline 
until  the  21st  of  October,  when  his  state  became  alarmingly  dangerous. 
His  death  occurred  on  the  morning  of  the  Sabbath,  December  24th,  a 
little  before  3  o'clock.  When  informed  that  his  death  was  rapidly  ap- 
proaching, he  bade  each  of  his  family  and  friends  an  affectionate  farewell, 
and  invoked  upon  them  the  richest  of  heaven's  blessings.  In  a  full  and 
clear  voice  he  then  prayed  fervently  for  all,  concluding  his  prayer  im- 
pressively as  follows  :  "  Heavenly  Father  !  forgive  my  sins  and  welcome 
me  to  Thyself  through  Jesus  Christ." 

He  died  of  disease  of  the  liver.  On  a  post-mortem  examination 
the  cerebral  organ  was  found  to  exceed  by  30  per  cent,  the  average 
weight  of  the  human  brain  ;  and  with  but  two  exceptions,  Cuvier  and 
Duypuytren,  the  largest  of  which  there  is  any  record. 


STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED   YEARS.  363 

SUBMARINE  BOATS. 

In  1847  Dr.  Payerne,  a  Frenchman,  commenced  certain  experiments 
with  a  diving  machine,  out  of  which  eventually  grew  the  design  of  a  nav- 
igable submarine  vessel  driven  by  steam,  patented  in  1 854.  On  the  sur- 
face the  steam  could  be  generated  by  an  ordinary  boiler  and  furnace  ; 
when  submerged  by  a  tubular  boiler  with  an  internal  furnace,  hermeti- 
cally closed,  the  principle  of  which  has  been  adopted  with  modifications 
by  succeeding  inventors.  The  purification  of  the  air  was  effected  by  a 
current  of  water  allowed  to  run  through  a  lower  compartment,  when  a 
trap  in  the  bottom  was  opened  for  external  operations  ;  or  by  an  alka- 
line mixture,  composed  of  slaked  lime  and  potash  ;  and  also,  if  neces- 
sary, by  prepared  oxygen,  thus  affording  a  sufficient  supply  for  three 
men  for  five  hours.  A  lateral  door  gave  exit  to  workers  in  diving 
armor  for  outside  operations. 

From  1850  to  the  present  year  the  number  of  patented  designs 
for  submarine  boats,  of  which  only  a  small  percentage  have  ever  been 
tried,  has  multiplied  at  an  astonishing  rate.  Very  few  of  them  pre- 
sent any  features  of  interest,  practicability,  or  real  novelty.  In  1851 
Bauer,  an  ex-sergeant  of  the  Bavarian  artillery,  built  a  boat  for  the 
Schleswig-Holsteiners  with  the  idea  of  blowing  up  the  Danish  block- 
aders  anchored  of  Sundeved,  but  a  severe  frost  compelled  the  Danes 
to  sheer  off,  and  nipped  his  project  in  the  bud.  His  boat  was  built 
of  cast-iron  plates,  but  these,  as  well  as  the  pumping  apparatus  for 
admitting  and  forcing  out  the  water,  were  not  strong  enough  for  the 
strain  put  on  them.  A  pair  of  gutta-percha  gauntlets  fastened  over 
arm-holes  in  the  top  of  the  boat  afforded  a  clumsy  means  for  the  opera- 
tor to  affix  a  torpedo,  fired  by  a  Voltaic  battery  to  an  enemy's  ship. 
This  crude  piece  of  naval  architecture  was  subsequently  tried  in  Kiel 
harbor,  and  dived  with  great  readiness  to  the  bottom,  where  the  pres- 
sure of  the  water  started  the  plates,  thereby  nearly  drowning  the  in- 
ventor and  his  two  companions. 

During  the  progress  of  the  Crimean  War,  the  late  Mr.  Scott  Russell 
designed  a  submarine  boat,  so-called,  with  the  aid  of  which  it  was  intended 
to  blow  up  the  obstructions  at  the  mouth  of  Sevastopol  Harbor.  Lord 
Palmerston  took  much  personal  interest  in  the  matter,  and  authorized  a 
grant  of  £7000  from  the  Treasury  for  its  construction  and  trials.  The 
boat  was  called  the  "  Nautilus,"  and  did  not  commend  itself  to  the  com- 


364  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

mittee  of  naval  officers  appointed  to  report  on  it.  According  to  the  late 
Admiral  Sir  Cooper  Key,  who  was  on  the  committee,  it  was  merely  a 
large  diving-bell  or  inverted  boat,  and  its  behavior  during  the  trials  at 
Portsmouth  was  extremely  uncanny.  It  never  got  so  far  as  the  Crimea, 
as  the  war  was  over  before  it  was  quite  ready  for  service,  and  it  ended 
its  days  harmlessly  in  the  yard  at  Millvvall. 

SUBMARINE  TELEGRAPHY. 

We  have  now  to  record  the  auspicious  date  on  which  the  possibility 
of  sending  telegraphic  messages  for  any  long  distance  under  the  sea  was 
first  firmly  established.  On  August  28,  1850,  telegrams  passed  between 
Dover  and  the  coast  of  France  through  a  make-shift  cable,  coated  with 
gutta-percha  ;  and  what  had  been  held  by  nearly  every  one  to  be  a  wild 
dream  became  an  accomplished  fact.  Of  course  there  had  been  for  many 
years  previously  scientific  men  ahead  of  their  time  who  felt  certain  that 
it  could  be  done.  As  far  back  as  1 795  a  Spanish  engineer  had  suggested 
it.  All  through  the  first  half  of  the  century  experiments  had  been  going 
on.  In  1813  signals  were  transmitted  through  seven  miles  of  wire  laid 
down  at  the  bottom  of  a  pond.  In  1 838  a  British  royal  engineer  officer 
had  some  success  with  a  cable  insulated  by  means  of  tarred  rope  and 
yarn  solidified  with  pitch.  Split  rattan  canes  were  also  used  as  insula- 
tors. Professor  Wheatstone,  who,  with  Mr.  Cooke,  had  in  1837  first 
introduced  the  land  telegraph  into  England,  had  also  been  making  trial 
of  a  submarine  system.  He  had  laid  a  cable  in  Swansea  Bay  and  had 
succeeded  in  connecting  the  lightship  with  the  shore.  But  all  these 
attempts  fell  short  of  any  wide  practical  result.  Submarine  telegraphy 
was  not  put  into  actual  operation  until  the  brothers  Brett  came  upon  the 
scene. 

THE  BROTHERS  BRETT. 

Jacob  Brett  was  an  electrician  full  of  ideas.  John  VVatkins  Brett 
was  a  clear-headed,  long-sighted  man  of  business.  In  1845  they  were 
discussing  the  recently-established  land  telegraph  between  London  and 
Slough.  Why,  they  asked,  should  not  similar  communication  be  carried 
on  under  the  sea  ?  They  were  not  the  sort  of  men  to  ask  questions, 
and,  like  jesting  Pilate,  not  wait  for  an  answer.  They  set  to  work  to 
prove  that  what  they  suggested  could  be  done.  In  June,  1845,  losing  no 
time,  they  registered  a  project  for  an  Atlantic  cable,  and  they  also  offered 


STORY   OF   ONP:    HUNDRED   YEARS.  365 

to  connect  Dublin  Castle  with  Downing  street  if  the  British  Government 
would  advance  ^20,000.  The  British  Government  would  have  little  to 
say  to  them.  They  did  get  leave  to  lay  a  submarine  telegraph  from 
Dover,  if  they  could,  but  they  obtained  no  pecuniary  assistance.  So 
they  turned  their  attention  to  foreign  States.  In  1847  they  received  per- 
mission from  King  Louis  Philippe  to  land  a  cable  laid  under  the  English 
Channel  on  the  coast  of  France.  Before  they  could  mature  their  plans 
the  revolution  of  1848  had  driven  Louis  Philippe  from  the  throne,  and  it 
was  necessary  to  obtain  a  concession  from  the  republic.  Prince  Louis 
Napoleon,  President  of  the  republic,  granted  their  concession  ;  and  in 
June,  1850,  it  was  transferred  to  a  small  company,  consisting  of  Mr.  J. 
W.  Brett,  Mr.  (afterwards  Sir)  Charles  Fox,  Mr.  Francis  Edwards  and 
Mr.  Charles  J.  Wollaston,  on  the  understanding  that  the  cable  should  be 
laid  down  by  September  ist  of  that  year.  Of  these  four  pioneers,  who 
each  subscribed  ^500  for  the  purpose  of  the  experiment,  Mr.  Wollaston 
is  still  alive,  hale  and  hearty  in  a  green  old  age.  He  has  not  made  a 
fortune  out  of  his  share  in  the  plucky  enterprise,  but  he  enjoys  a  British 
Civil  List  pension  granted  in  recognition  of  his  services  to  electricity, 
and  he  can  look  back  with  a  feeling  of  pride  upon  his  close  connection 
with  so  momentous  an  undertakingf.  For  it  was  Mr.  Wollaston  who 
acted  as  the  engineer  to  the  company  and  actually  directed  the  laying  of 
the  first  cable.  Part  of  his  electrical  talent  he  had  inherited.  He  is  the 
nephew  of  Wollaston,  the  famous  philosopher,  who  introduced  the 
Wollaston  electro-chemical  cell.  He  had  also  been  a  pupil  of  Brunei, 
who,  by  the  way,  refused  altogether  to  believe  in  the  feasibility  of  the 
submarine  scheme.  Meeting  his  pupil  at  the  time  when  ever)'  one  was 
ridiculing  the  idea,  he  said  gravely,  "I  hear,  Wollaston,  you  have  some- 
thing to  do  with  this.  I'm  sorry  for  it."  And  when  his  pupil  inquired 
the  reason  for  this  discouraging  address,  the  great  man  said,  with 
emphasis:  "It  can't  succeed,  can't  succeed."  It  is  only  fair,  thcJugh,  to 
add  that,  as  soon  as  Wollaston  had  proved  that  it  could  succeed,  Brunei 
congratulated  him  warmly,  and.  realizing  at  once  what  its  success  meant, 
declared  that  "  nothing  could  stop  it  from  going  all  over  the  world." 

THE  FIRST  CABLED 

But  to  go  back  to  June  of  1850,  as  soon  as  the  final  concession  had 
been  made  by  President  Louis  Napoleon,  Mr.  Wollaston,  who  had  gone 


366  STORY   OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

to  Paris  to  receive  it,  hurried  bade  to  England.  Less  than  three  months 
remained  for  all  the  preparations  to  be  made.  As  soon  as  he  touched 
British  soil  he  telegraphed  to  the  wire  cable  makers  and  to  the  gutta- 
percha company  and  arranged  for  the  supply  of  the  materials.  Both 
undertook  to  deliver  them  in  good  time.  The  next  thing  was  to  devise 
some  means  of  playing  out  the  cable  from  a  ship's  deck.  Mr.  Wollaston 
for  this  purpose  had  made  to  his  order  a  large  drum  or  wheel.  Upon 
this  the  twenty  four  miles  of  wire  covered  with  gutta-percha  were  wound, 
and  then  it  was  placed  in  position  upon  the  deck  of  the  tug  "Goliath." 
At  last  everything  was  ready.  On  the  morning  of  August  28th  the  tug 
was  at  Dover.  A  coil  of  wire  was  twisted  round  a  pile  belonging  to  the 
harbor  works  (just  where  the  Admiralty  Pier  now  stands),  and  then 
carried  up  above  to  a  horse-box,  which  the  South- Eastern  Railway  Com- 
pany had  lent  the  Submarine  Cable  Company  to  serve  as  their  Dover 
office.  The  end  securely  fixed,  the  tug  started  off  in  a  straight  line  for 
Cape  Gris  Nez.  The  cable,  weighted  with  small  pieces  of  lead  to  keep 
it  down,  was  sunk  without  accident,  and  the  other  end  was  made  fast  in 
an  old  custom  house  that  stood  on  the  French  cliffs. 

TRIUMPH  AT  LAST. 

Now  came  the  moment  of  painful  suspense  which  was  to  decide 
whether  the  promoters'  pains  and  anxieties  were  to  be  rewarded.  Con- 
sidering, in  the  light  of  our  fuller  knowledge,  the  imperfect  insulation 
and  the  simple  method  of  keeping  the  cable  down  and  the  strain  that  was 
put  upon  the  unsupported  gutta-percha  wire,  it  seems  a  wonder  that  the 
experiment  succeeded  at  all.  But  succeed  it  did,  and  proved  that  the 
promoters  had,  so  far  as  they  could,  gone  the  right  way  to  work.  The 
instrument  in  the  horse-box  at  Dover  Railway  Station  clicked  out  a 
message  to  Louis  Napoleon,  congratulating  him  upon  the  happy  result 
of  the  experiment.  It  was  sent  with  misgiving,  for  the  senders  could 
not  tell  whether  it  would  ever  reach  the  other  side.  Nervously  and 
impatiently  they  waited,  and  then  to  their  intense  joy  the  needle  moved 
again,  and  they  knew  that  twenty-four  miles  away  across  the  sea  their 
message  had  been  safely  received.  Their  labors  had  borne  fruit.  They 
had  done  what  very  few  believed  they  could  do.  The  possibility  of 
telegraphing  under  the  sea  was  established;  and,  as  "The  London 
Times"  said  in  a  leading  article  a  few  mornings  afterwards,  "the  jest  or 


STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS.  ^^y 

scheme  of  yesterday"  had  become  "the  fact  of  to-day;"  "the  wildest 
exaggeration  of  an  Arabian  tale"  had  been  "outdone  by  the  simple 
achievement  of  modern  times." 

All  the  same,  the  "fact  of  to-day  "  early  became  in  its  turn  the  "jest 
of  to-morrow."  The  cable  very  soon  refused  to  work,  and  on  August 
31st  its  brief  career  was  ended.  A  Boulogne  fisherman  picked  up  a 
piece  of  it  in  his  trawl-net,  and,  making  sure  that  it  was  some  new  kind 
of  seaweed  or  coral,  or  a  section  of  some  marvelous  sea-snake,  he  cut  it 
open  to  see  whether  it  had  "gold  at  its  centre."  He  was  disappointed,  but 
he  carried  off  the  strange  object  to  Boulogne,  and  the  life  of  the  earliest 
submarine  cable  came  to  an  inglorious  end.  However,  the  great  thing 
was  that  the  success  of  the  e.xperiment  had  been  duly  attested.  Ten 
independent  persons  on  the  French  side  had  signed  a  report  to  the  effect 
that  messages  had  passed  to  and  fro,  and  this  was  sent  to  Louis  Napo- 
leon. An  unfair  attempt  was  made  to  wrest  the  concession  from  the 
pioneer  company  on  the  ground  that  their  cable  was  not  permanent. 
Louis  Napoleon,  however,  expressed  both  surprise  and  indignation  at 
this  endeavor  to  rob  them  of  the  fruits  of  their  enterprise,  and  granted  a 
fresh  concession  for  permanent  communication  to  be  established  by  the 
end  of  October,  1851.  To  work  this  concession  there  was  formed  the 
Submarine  Telegraph  Company.  They  duly  laid  down  a  four-wire  cable, 
with  strong  wire  insulation,  made  on  the  same  principle  as  that  now  in 
existence,  and  on  November  13,  185 1,  it  was  opened  for  public  use. 

EXTENSION  OF  THE  SYSTEM. 

The  possibility  of  submarine  communication  having  been  proved,  its 
extension  was  merely  a  matter  of  time.  It  was,  however,  a  matter  of  a 
good  deal  of  time.  In  1853,  after  three  failures,  the  connection  that  Mr. 
Brett  had  proposed  eight  years  before  was  made  between  England  and 
Ireland  ;  and  in  the  same  year  the  Dover-Ostend  cable  was  laid  and 
opened.  In  1854  began  the  sinking  of  a  series  of  cables  in  the  Medi- 
terranean. These  operations  were  much  hindered  by  several  untoward 
and  alarming  "  flights  of  cable,"  that  is  to  say,  by  the  cable  getting  out  of 
hand  and  running  off  the  drums  at  a  terrific  speed.  On  one  occasion 
two  miles  of  cable,  weighing  sixteen  tons,  flew  into  the  sea  in  the  course 
of  four  or  five  minutes.  It  was  not  until  1856  that  the  Atlantic  Telegraph 
Company  was  formed,  and  not  until  185S  was  communication  established. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII. 


Franklin    Pierce    Becomes    President    of  the    United    States — Walker    in 
Nicaragua — Anti-Slavery    Power    in    Congress — Ostend     Manifesto — 
Reciprocity  with  Canadss. — Squatter  Sovereignty— Protests  Against 
Extension   of  Slavery — The  War  in   Kansas— Organizing  the 
Kansas    Government — Anti-Slavery    Agitation — "  Under- 
Ground    Railroad  " — The    Sumner-Brooks    Episode — 
Know-Nothing    Party — The    Republican    Pa^rty — 
The  Koszta  Incident — Perry  in  Japan. 


IN  1853  Mr.  Fillmore  was  succeeded  by  Franklin  Pierce,  the  Demo- 
cratic candidate,  as  President  of  the  United  States,  who  received  254 
electoral  votes.  General  Winfield  Scott,  the  Whig  candidate,  re- 
ceived 42  votes.  President  Pierce  in  his  inaugural  address,  main- 
tained the  recognition  of  slavery  by  the  Constitution,  and  the  constitu- 
tionality of  the  fugitive  slave  law  ;  and  he  denounced  in  strong  terms 
political  agitation  on  the  subject  of  slavery  ;  yet  public  measures  were 
soon  adopted  which  tended  greatly  to  increase  this  agitation. 

WALKER   IN   NICARAGUA. 

After  the  termination  of  the  war  between  the  United  States  and 
Mexico,  several  lawless  military  expeditions  (commonly  styled  filibuster- 
ing expeditions)  were  made  against  Nicaragua,  and  some  of  the  other 
countries  of  Central  America. 

These  expeditions  were  regarded  with  favor  by  many  of  the  people 
of  the  Southern  States,  and  pecuniary  aid  was  furnished  by  some  of  their 
wealthy  men.  The  pretended  object  was  to  rescue  these  countries  from 
tyranny,  domestic  and  foreign  ;  and  it  was  also  designed  to  introduce 
slavery. 

The  most  noted  leader  in  these  enterprises  was  William  Walker,  a 
native  of  Tennessee  ,  and  the  most  considerable  of  the  expeditions  was 
made  in  1855  against  Nicaragua.  Walker  made  himself  master  of  the 
country,  and  after  holding  it  for  some  time,  he  was  finally  expelled  by  the 
union  against  him  of  tiie  other  .States  of  Central  America.  In  this  expe- 
dition more  than  3000  men  miserably  perished, 

368 


> 
r 
c 
r. 


> 

c 
c 
c 
> 


1863— I'INCOLN   DELIVERING  HIS  FAMOUS  ADDRESS  AT  GETTYSBURG 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  3/1 

In  Walker's  last  expedition  he  landed  near  Truxillo,  in  Honduras, 
took  the  fort  on  the  6th  of  August,  i860,  and  he  was  shot  on  the  12th 
of  the  following-  month. 

ANTI-SLAVERY  POWER    IN   CONGRESS. 

At  the  assembling  of  the  Thirty-fourth  Congress  on  the  3d  of  De- 
cember, 1856,  there  was  an  unprecedented  struggle  for  the  choice  of  a 
speaker,  which  lasted  till  the  2d  of  February,  nine  weeks,  and,  after  133 
ballotings,  resulted  in  the  choice  of  Nathaniel  P.  Banks,  the  candidate  of 
the  Free  State  and  Anti-Slavery  men,  who  was  elected  by  103  votes,  100 
votes  being  cast  for  William  Aiken. 

osTEND  manife:sto. 

In  October,  1854,  a  conference  was  held  at  Ostend,  at  which  Mr. 
Buchanan,  American  Minister  to  England,  Mr.  Mason,  Minister  to 
France,  and  Mr.  Soule,  Minister  to  Spain,  were  present  ;  and  it  was  pro- 
posed by  them  to  purchase  the  island  of  Cuba  from  Spain  for  ^120,000,- 
000,  and  in  case  of  her  refusal  to  sell  the  island,  to  take  it  by  force. 
This  proposition  was  favored  by  the  people  of  the  Southern  States,  but 
was  strongly  disapproved  by  the  people  of  the  free  States. 

RECIPROCITY  WITH  CANADA. 

Two  important  measures  of  this  administration  were  the  Reciprocity' 
Treaty  between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain,  providing  for  a 
commercial  reciprocity  between  this  country  and  the  British-American 
Provinces  ;  and  the  establishment  of  a  Court  of  Claims  at  Washington. 

SQUATTER  SOVEREIGNTY. 

In  January,  1854,  Mr.  Douglas,  Chairman  of  the  Senate  Committee 
on  Territories,  introduced  a  bill  for  the  organization  of  the  Territories  of 
Kansas  and  Nebraska,  in  the  country  west  of  the  State  of  Missouri,  and 
north  of  the  parallel  of  36°  30'.  By  the  Missouri  Compromise  slavery 
had  been  formally  and  forever  excluded  from  this  region  ;  but  by  this 
bill,  which  was  supported  by  the  administration,  the  Missouri  Compro- 
mise was  repealed,  and  slavery  was  permitted  to  enter  these  territories. 

Mr.  Douglas,  who  was  a  Senator  from  Illinois,  and  a  man  of  unusual 
ability  and  fen'ent  patriotism,  had  devised  what  he  deemed  was  an  effec- 


372  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

tive  scheme  for  settling  the  slavery  controversy,  so  far  as  the  territories 
were  concerned.  He  proposed  to  apply  to  the  territories  the  principle 
of  local  option,  or  home  rule.  Let  the  settlers  of  each  territory,  he 
said,  decide  for  themselves  whether  they  will  have  slaver)'  or  not.  This 
scheme  became  popularly  known  as  "  squatter  sovereignty,"  and  the 
adoption  of  it  led  to  a  stampede  of  transient  settlers  into  Kansas  for 
the  purpose  of  mustering  votes  upon  the  slavery  question.  The  New 
England  Abolitionists  sent  thousands  of  men  thither,  each  carrying 
"a  Bible  and  a  rifle,"  and  the  slaveholders  of  Missouri  also  poured  a 
vast  tide  of  their  retainers  into  the  same  territory. 

PROTESTS  AGAINST  EXTENSION  OF  SLAVERY. 

The  introduction  of  this  bill  soon  excited  the  strong  opposition, 
throughout  the  free  States,  of  those  who  were  opposed  to  the  furthei 
e.xtension  of  slavery  ;  and  in  the  month  of  March  following,  a  memorial, 
protesting  against  its  passage,  signed  by  3000  New  England  clergymen 
of  different  religious  denominations,  was  presented  to  the  Senate;  but  it 
was  passed  by  that  body,  on  the  26th  of  May,  by  a  vote  of  35  to  12. 
It  was  passed  in  the  House  of  Representatives  by  a  vote  of  1 13  to  100. 

This  measure  caused  a  great  excitement  in  the  free  States  ;  it  was 
denounced  as  a  flagrant  breach  of  faith,  and  a  violation  of  what  was 
regarded  as  a  sacred  compromise  ;  and  it  led  to  a  disastrous  and  san- 
guinary contest  between  those  who  advocated  and  those  who  opposed 
the  establishment  of  slavery  in  these  territories. 

This  unhappy  contest  continued  during  the  administration  of  Mr. 
Pierce  and  that  of  his  successor,  Mr.  Buchanan. 

THE  WAR  IN   KANSAS. 

Soon  after  the  passage  of  this  act  large  emigrations  were  made  from 
the  free  States,  with  the  design  of  making  Kansas  a  free  State.  At  the 
same  time  great  efforts  were  made  to  establish  it  as  a  slave  State  by 
emigrants  chiefly  from  the  State  of  Missouri,  many  of  them  taking  their 
slaves  with  them.  A  violent  and  sanguinary  contest  soon  ensued 
between  the  advocates  and  the  opponents  of  slavery' ;  and  the  grossest 
frauds  were  committed  in  several  of  the  subsequent  elections  for  the 
choice  of  public  officers,  and  also  for  the  choice  of  delegates  for  the 
formation  of  a  constitution. 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  ^J  T, 

Large  bodies  of  armed  men  from  Missouri,  who  have  commonly 
been  styled  "  Border  Ruffians,"  formed  into  regiments,  entered  the 
territory  in  order  to  frustrate,  by  military  force,  the  purpose  of  those 
emigrants  who  designed  to  establish  Kansas  as  a  free  State,  and  a 
considerable  number  of  lives  were  sacrificed  in  the  conflict. 

ORGANIZING  THE  KANSAS  GOVERNMENT. 

The  first  Governor  of  the  territory  was  A.  H.  Reeder,  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, who  arrived  in  October,  1854;  and  an  election  for  a  delegate  to 
Congress  was  held  in  November,  but  a  great  part  of  the  votes  were  cast 
by  persons  from  Missouri,  who  were  not  residents  of  the  territory,  and 
a  majority  of  the  votes  were  found  to  be  illegal. 

In  March,  1855,  an  election  was  held  for  choosing  members  of  the 
Territorial  Legislature.  It  was  found  that,  of  6218  votes  cast,  only  1310 
were  legal,  and  of  these  791  were  given  for  the  free  State  candidates. 

Wilson  Shannon,  of  Ohio,  was  appointed  Governor  in  place  of 
Reeder,  and  assumed  office  on  the  ist  of  September.  Delegates  were 
chosen  to  a  Constitutional  Convention  that  assembled  at  Topeka,  and, 
in  November,  promulgated  a  constitution,  in  which  slavery  was  pro- 
hibited ;  but  the  Topeka  Constitution  was  never  carried  into  effect. 

In  August,  1856,  Shannon  was  succeeded  in  oflnce  by  John  \V.  Gearj-, 
of  Pennsylvania,  who  found  the  territory  in  a  very^  disturbed  condition,  and 
after  various  conflicts  and  ineffectual  endeavors  to  restore  order,  he 
demanded  the  removal  of  Lecompte,  the  District  Judge  of  Kansas,  for 
gross  misdemeanor  ;  but  Lecompte,  being  sustained  by  a  majority  of  the 
United  States  Senate,  Governor  Geary  resigned  his  office  in  March, 
1857,  and  Robert  J.  Walker,  of  Mississippi,  was  appointed  in  his  place 
by  Mr.  Buchanan,  who  had  now  become  President. 

ANTI-SLAVERY  AGITATION. 

Agitation  against  the  slave  system,  and  especially  against  the 
fugitive  slave  law  of  1850,  continued  and  steadily  increased  in  vehe- 
mence, especially  in  New  England.  In  1854  a  negro  named  Anthony 
Burns,  who  had  escaped  from  slavery  in  \'^irginia,  was  arrested  in  Boston, 
and  was  confined  in  the  court-house  under  a  strong  guard.  Forthwith  a 
meeting  of  citizens  was  held  in  Faneuil  Hall  to  consider  the  question 
whether  his  return  to  bondage  should  be  permitted.     At  the  same  time 


374  STORY    OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

an  attempt  to  rescue  Burns  was  made  by  a  party  of  citizens  led  by  a 
clergyman,  the  Rev.  Thomas  Wentworth  Higginson,  who  afterwards 
commanded  the  first  body  of  negro  troops  in  the  Civil  War.  The  door 
of  the  court-house  was  broken  down,  and  in  the  affray  one  of  the  deputy 
marshals  guarding  Burns  was  killed,  but  the  attempt  at  rescue  failed. 
Burns  was  afterward  escorted  by  a  strong  military  guard  to  a  vessel  and 
shipped  back  to  Virginia.  It  was  with  difficulty  that  the  people  of  Boston 
were  restrained  from  violence  and  insurrection  over  this  incident. 

A  potent  factor  in  this  agitation  was  the  famous  book,  "  Uncle 
Tom's  Cabin,"  published  in  1852,  and  which  now  gained  a  phenomenal 
circulation. 

"  UNDERGROUND  RAILROAD." 

The  opponents  of  slavery  were  not  content  with  trying  to  prevent 
the  enforcement  of  the  fugitive  slave  law.  They  organized  an  elabo- 
rate system  for  nullifying  it  and  for  assisting  fugitive  slaves  to  make 
good  their  escape.  Secret  understandings  were  maintained  among  men 
in  the  cities  and  towns  of  the  north,  so  that  fugitives  could  be  passed 
along  from  one  to  another,  until  the  Canadian  border  line  was  reached, 
across  which,  of  course,  no  slave  hunter  could  follow.  So  perfect  was 
this  system,  and  so  successful  was  it  in  forwarding  a  steady  stream  of 
runaway  slaves,  that  it  came  to  be  known  as  "the  underground  railway." 

THE  SUMNER-BROOKS   EPISODE. 

Among  the  most  conspicuous  anti-slavery  men  in  Congress  was 
Charles  Sumner,  a  Senator  from  Massachusetts.  He  was  a  man  of  com- 
manding ability,  and  was  particularly  aggressive  and  exasperating  in  his 
attacks  upon  the  pro-slavery  party.  On  May  19  and  20,  1856,  he  made 
a  powerful  speech  on  the  troubles  in  Kansas,  in  the  course  of  which  he 
indulged  in  some  personal  strictures  upon  Senator  Butler,  of  South 
Carolina.  Two  days  afterward  Preston  Brooks,  a  nephew  of  Butler  and 
a  Representative  in  Congress,  entered  the  Senate  Chamber,  stole  up 
behind  Sumner  and  struck  him  repeatedly  over  the  head  with  a  heavy 
cane,  nearly  killing  him.  For  this  act  an  attempt  was  made  to  have 
Brooks  expelled  from  Congress,  but  it  failed.  Thereupon  Brooks 
resigned  and  sought  a  vindication  of  his  constituents.  He  was  re-elected 
by  a  practically  unanimous  vote.  Anson  Burlingame,  a  friend  of  Sumner, 
challenged  Brooks  to  fight  a  duel,  but  Brooks  declined. 


I 

'£. 

V. 

5 
o 

o 

H 

•X. 


> 
SO 

> 


> 

VI 

> 

73 

o 
71 

o 

Tl 

-r] 

-) 

n 
O 
> 

O 

> 

Z 

n 


,865-ASSASSINATION   OF   PRESIDENT   LINCOLN 


STORY   OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS.  377 

KNOW-NOTHING  PARTY. 

We  must  mention  in  passing  the  formation  and  career  of  the  Know- 
Nothing  party.  This  had  its  origin  a  few  years  before  this  administra- 
tion, when  the  ereat  influx  of  immiofrants  from  Ireland  begfan.  It  was 
feared  by  many  that  these  foreigners  would  become  a  disturbing  and 
mischievous  factor  in  United  States  politics.  Accordingly  a  movement 
was  organized  to  exclude  them  from  political  office,  and  to  secure  the  en- 
actment of  laws  making  it  less  easy  for  them  to  become  naturalized. 
This  organization  was  made  as  a  secret  society,  of  the  aims  and  acts  of 
which  the  members  professed  to  know  nothing.  Their  organization  was 
the  nucleus  from  which  arose  the  American  party,  which  ir  1855  was 
sufficiently  strong  to  carry  the  elections  in  nine  States. 

THE   REPUBLICAN   PARTY. 

Meantime  the  old  Whig  party  was  rapidly  disintegrating,  and  from 
its  ruins  was  formed  the  new  Republican  party.  This  party  opposed 
Douglas'  principle  of  "squatter  sovereignty"  and  insisted  upon  the 
maintenance  of  the  Wilmot  Proviso,  and  the  exclusion  of  slavery  from 
the  Northern  Territories.  The  Republican  party  held  its  first  National 
Convention  in  1856,  and  nominated  as  its  candidate  for  the  Presidency 
General  John  Charles  Fremont,  the  explorer  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains and  conqueror  of  California.  The  Democrats  nominated  James 
Buchanan,  one  of  the  authors  of  the  Ostend  Manifesto,  a  North- 
ern man,  but  a  friend  of  the  South  and  of  slavery,  and  stood  upon  the 
principle  of  "  squatter  sovereignty."  The  American  party  nominated 
Millard  Fillmore.  A  vigorous  campaign  was  prosecuted,  which  resulted 
in  the  election  of  Buchanan,  who  had  174  electoral  votes.  Fremont, 
however,  had  114  votes,  and  an  enormous  popular  vote  which  presaged 
success  for  the  Republicans  in  the  near  future.  Fillmore  received  8 
electoral  votes. 

Before  leaving  the  Pierce  Administration  we  must  note  the  Gadsden 
purchase,  by  which  a  considerable  strip  of  land  south  of  New  Mexico 
and  Arizona  was  purchased  from  Mexico.  In  1853,  moreover,  the  Ha- 
waiian Islands  made  formal  application  to  be  annexed  to  the  United 
States.  The  application  was  rejected,  but  the  principle  was  established 
that  those  islands  were  within  the  American  sphere  of  influence,  and  were 
not  to  be  molested  or  annexed  by  any  European  power.' 


3/8  STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

THE  KOSZTA  INCIDENT. 

Pronounced  American  sympathy  with  the  Hungarians,  and  the  great 
popular  and  official  greeting  given  in  the  United  States  to  Kossuth  had 
put  something  of  a  strain  upon  relations  between  the  United  States  and 
Austria,  and  in  1854  this  strain  came  perilously  near  the  breaking  point. 
One  Martin  Koszta,  a  Hungarian  refugee,  had  filed  in  1852  his  declara- 
tion of  intention  to  become  a  citizen  of  the  United  States.  This  was  the 
first  step  toward  naturalization,  and  according  to  American  practice,  en- 
titled him  to  American  protection.  In  1854  he  had  occasion  to  visit  the 
port  of  Smyrna,  in  Asia  Minor,  on  business.  There,  at  the  instigation 
of  the  Austrian  Consul-General,  he  was  seized  by  the  crew  of  an  Aus- 
trian warship  that  happened  to  be  in  the  harbor,  and  was  put  into 
a  cell,  heavily  ironed.  This  was  done  in  spite  of  his  claim  of  Amer- 
ican protection,  and  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  he  had  an  American 
passport  in  his  possession.  The  American  authorities  at  Smyrna 
made  demand  for  his  release.  This  was  refused  by  the  Austrians. 
The  captain  of  an  American  warship  in  the  harbor.  Captain  Ingra- 
ham,  thereupon  gave  the  Austrians  notice  that  if  Koszta  was  not  re- 
leased by  a  certain  hour,  he  would  use  force  for  his  release,  and  at  the 
same  time  he  ordered  the  decks  of  his  ship  to  be  cleared  for  action.  The 
Austrians  were  at  first  defiant,  but  when  they  saw  the  American  guns 
trained  upon  their  ship,  and  realized  what  the  firing  of  a  shot  would 
mean,  they  yielded.  Koszta  was  surrendered  by  them  to  the  French 
Consul-General,  and  shortly  afterward  was  permitted  to  return  to  the 
United  States. 

PERRY   IN  JAPAN. 

The  story  of  the  "  opening"  of  Japan  properly  belongs  to  the  his- 
tory of  that  island  Empire.  At  this  point,  however,  it  is  appropriate  to 
recall  that  the  memorable  deed  was  performed  in  July,  1853,  by  Commo- 
dore Perry,  of  the  United  States  navy.  Without  the  firing  of  a  shot  he 
compelled  the  Japanese  Government  to  abandon  the  seclusion  of  cen- 
turies, and  to  open  its  realm  to  friendly  intercourse  with  the  rest  of 
the  world.  The  United  States  made  the  first  treaty  with  Japan  on 
May  31,    1854. 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 


Marriage  of  Napoleon  III — The  Crimean  War — Invasion  of  the  Crimea- 

The   Charge    of  the    Light    Brigade— Inkerman — Sufferings    of  the 

Troops — Ministerial  Changes  in  England — Redan  and  Malakoff 

— Terms   of   Peace — Turkish   Reforms — Revolution   in 

Spedn — British  War  with  China — Opening  of 

Japan — Minor  Incidents. 


THE  marriage  of  Louis  Napoleon,  or  Napoleon  III,  as  we  must 
now  call  him,  undoubtedly  enhanced  his  popularity  among  the 
French.  But  something  more  was  needed  to  establish  his  place 
securely  among  the  hereditary  sovereigns  of  Europe,  and  that  was 
a  great  war  in  which  he  should  be  the  ally  of  some  other  great  powers. 
This  want  was  soon  supplied  in  the  Crimean  War. 

In  1852  an  old  dispute  about  the  custody  of  the  Holy  Places  in 
Jerusalem  had  been  revived.  Louis  Napoleon,  then  President  of  the 
French  Republic,  had  put  himself  forward  as  the  champion  of  the  Latin 
Christians,  and  obtained  for  them  from  the  Porte  the  right  of  free  entry 
to  the  Sepulchre,  which  had  been  contested  by  the  Greek  monks.  The 
Czar  Nicholas,  as  the  head  of  the  Greek  Church,  considered  himself 
aggrieved  by  this  decision.  The  weakness  of  Turkey  seemed  to  offer  a 
convenient  opportunity  for  carrying  out  those  aggressive  designs  which 
the  Czar  had  never  ceased  to  cherish,  even  when  he  ioined  Eneland  in 
supporting  the  Porte  against  Mehemet  Ali.  The  opposition  of  England 
might  be  bought  off.  In  January,  1853,  Nicholas  disclosed  his  plans  in 
two  important  interviews  with  Sir  Hamilton  Seymour,  the  English 
Ambassador.  Without  circumlocution  he  suggested  that  the  two  powers 
should  divide  between  them  the  territories  of  the  Sultan.  The  Danubian 
Principalities,  Servia  and  Bulgaria,  were  to  be  formed  into  independent 
States  under  Russian  protection  ;  England  might  annex  Egypt,  so  im- 
portant for  the  route  to  India,  and  also  Canada.  "If  England  and  myself 
can  come  to  an  understanding  about  this  atiair,  I  shall  care  very  little 
what  the  others  (?.  e.  France,  Austria  and  Prussia)  may  think  or  do." 
Such  was  the  Czar's  boast.  England  declined  the  proposal,  and  excited 
the  Czar's  indignation  by  publishing  Seymour's  despatches. 

J79 


,gO  STORY    OF   ONE    HUNDRED    VEARb. 

THE  CRIMEAN  WAR. 

In  March  Prince  Menschikofi  appeared  in  Constantinople,  and  arro 
gantly  demanded  from  the  Porte  the  recognition  of  a  Russian  protecto- 
rate over  all  Turkish  subjects  belonging  to  the  Greek  Church.  Abdul 
Medjid  replied  by  offering  to  secure  the  rights  of  the  Greek  Christians 
by  charter,  but  refused  to  do  so  by  treaty.  Menschikoff  withdrew  after 
presenting  an  ultimatum,  and  the  Russian  army,  under  Gortschakoff, 
crossed  the  Pruth  (July  3,  1853)  to  occupy  Moldavia  and  Wallachia  as 
a  o-uarantee  for  the  fulfilment  of  Russian  demands.  The  Porte  treated 
this  as  an  act  of  hostility,  and  declared  war  against  Russia  (October  ist). 
Omar  Pasha,  a  Servian  renegade  in  the  Turkish  service,  won  a  con- 
picuous  victory  at  Oltenitza  (November  4th).  Napoleon  III  seized  the 
opportunity  to  secure  his  recendy  established  Empire  by  embarking  in  a 
great  war  and  by  obtaining  the  countenance  and  support  of  England. 
The  two  western  powers  concluded  a  treaty  with  the  Porte  (November 
27th),  and  promised  their  assistance  if  Russia  would  not  accept  peace 
on  moderate  terms. 

The  destruction  of  the  Turkish  fleet  at  Sinope  by  Admiral  Nakhimof 
destroyed  the  last  chance  of  terminating  the  contest  by  diplomacy.  The 
French  and  English  fleets  entered  the  Black  Sea,  and  the  Russian 
admiral  had  to  retire  to  Sebastopol. 

In  1854  France  and  England  declared  war  against  Russia.  Austria 
and  Prussia  remained  neutral,  but  agreed  to  oppose  the  Russians  if 
they  attacked  Austria  or  crossed  the  Balkans.  The  Czar  found  himself 
completely  isolated  in  Europe,  the  result  in  great  measure  of  the  haughty 
attitude  which  he  had  assumed  in  recent  years.  By  sea  the  allies  had 
an  overwhelming  superiority,  but  it  proved  of  little  use  to  them.  In  the 
Black  Sea  they  blockaded  Odessa,  but  in  the  Baltic  they  found  Cronstadt 
too  strong  to  be  attacked,  and  had  to  content  themselves  with  the  cap- 
ture of  Bomarsund.  It  was  obvious  that  Russia  could  only  be  seriously 
attacked  by  land.  In  April  the  Russians,  under  the  veteran  Paskievvitsch, 
had  laid  siege  to  Silistria,  but  all  attempts  to  storm  the  fortress  were 
foiled. 

In  July  the  siege  was  raised,  the  Principalities  were  evacuated, 
and  Austria  undertook  their  occupation  by  a  convention  with  the  Porte. 
Meanwhile  the  French  and  English  armies,  under  St.  Arnaud  and  Lord 
Raglan,  had  landed  at  Gallipoli  and  proceeded  to  Varna. 


STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED   YEARS.  38 1 

INVASION  OF  THE  CRIMEA. 

Finding  the  war  in  the  Principalities  settled  without  their  interven- 
tion, the  allies  determined  to  transfer  the  scene  of  hostilities  to  the 
Crimea  and  to  attack  Sebastopol.  They  landed  without  opposition  at 
Eupatoria  (September  14th),  and  the  battle  of  the  Alma  (September  20th) 
opened  the  way  to  the  great  fortress.  A  vigorous  pursuit  of  the 
Russians  might  have  taken  Sebastopol  at  once,  but  the  delay  enabled 
Menschikoff  to  make  elaborate  preparations  for  defence.  The  siege 
lasted  for  more  than  twelve  months,  and  absorbed  the  interested  atten- 
tion of  Europe.  The  allies  suffered  terribly  from  the  severity  of  the 
climate  and  from  the  defective  organization  of  the  commissariat.  At  the 
same  time  they  had  to  resist  the  constant  efforts  of  the  Russian  field 
army  to  interrupt  the  siege  operations.  The  first  of  these  led  to  what  is 
spoken  of  as  the  battle  of  Balaklava.  It  really  consisted  of  a  series  of 
somewhat  isolated  cavalry  operations  by  the  Russians  against  the 
Balaklava  end  of  the  allied  line,  which  was  defended  by  British,  French 
and  Turks.  The  attack  of  the  Russians  effected  nothing  of  importance  ; 
but  three  incidents  of  the  day  will  always  be  remembered  with  pride  by 
the  British  army.  Near  Balaklava  itself,  the  93d  Highlanders,  under  Sir 
Colin  Campbell,  were  charged  by  a  body  of  Russian  cavalry,  and  repelled 
them  in  line  by  a  volley  without  taking  the  trouble  to  form  square.  The 
next  was  the  charge  of  the  Heavy  Brigade  of  cavalry  under  General 
Scarlett.  In  this  Scarlett,  with  300  horsemen,  charged  a  body  of  halted 
Russian  cavalry,  numbering  between  two  and  three  thousand  men,  and 
cut  his  way  almost  through  it.  Fortunately  other  regiments  were  brought 
up  in  support,  and  the  whole  Russian  mass  of  cavalry  broke  up  in 
disorder  and  fled  from  the  field. 

THE  CHARGE  OF  THE  LIGHT  BRIGADE. 

Even  this  magnificent  feat  of  arms  was  thrown  into  the  shade  by  the 
romantic  episode  of  the  Light  Cavalry  charge.  This  arose  out  of  a 
mistake.  Lord  Raglan,  standing  on  the  heights  above  the  field,  could 
see  that  the  Russians  were  carrying  off  seven  British  guns  which  had 
been  lent  to  the  Turks,  and  lost  by  them,  so  he  sent  orders  to  Lord 
Lucan,  who  commanded  the  cavalry,  to  try  and  save  the  guns.  Lord 
Lucan  being  on  the  plain,  and  not  seeing  as  well  as  Lord  Raglan,  rather 
naturally  asked,  "What   guns?"     Nolan,  the  Aide-de-Camp  sent   with 


382  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

the  message,  said  merely,  but  probably  somewhat  forcibly,  "The  enemy 
is  there,  and  there  are  your  guns."  This  Lucan  understood  to  refer  to 
a  battery  not  of  British,  but  of  Russian  guns,  and  he  ordered  Lord 
Cardigan,  with  the  Light  Brigade  of  673  men,  to  charge  these  guns. 
Though  to  obey  it  seemed  certain  death,  the  order  was  obediently  carried 
out.  The  guns  to  be  charged  were  at  the  end  of  a  valley  two  miles  long, 
and  on  the  slopes  at  each  side  of  it,  to  right  and  to  left,  were  Russian 
batteries.  Nevertheless,  as  steadily  as  on  parade,  Lord  Cardigan  and 
his  gallant  followers  rode  oft  down  the  valley.  For  some  moments  the 
Russians  were  dumbfounded  at  their  audacity,  but  soon  a  hundred  guns 
were  firing  on  the  devoted  horsemen.  Nevertheless  the  brigade  actually 
reached  the  Russian  battery,  and  even  passed  it,  but  their  efforts  were 
perfectly  useless,  and,  after  suffering  terribly,  the  survivors  fought  their  way 
back  as  best  they  could.  Two  hundred  and  forty-seven  men  were  killed 
or  wounded,  with  a  much  larger  number  of  horses.  Had  it  not  been  for 
a  well-directed  charge  of  the  French,  who  silenced  the  batteries  at  one 
side  of  the  valley,  a  much  larger  number  would  have  perished.  "  It  is 
magnificent,  but  it  is  not  a  war,"  said  a  French  looker-on  from  the  height; 
and,  from  a  military  point  of  view,  it  was  a  gross  blunder.  Nevertheless, 
as  teaching  a  permanent  lesson  of  unquestioning  devotion  to  duty,  it 
cannot  altogether  be  regretted  ;  and  its  memory  will  always  remain  a 
glorious  heritage  for  the  British  army. 

INKERMAN. 

A  few  days  later  the  infantry  had  its  opportunity  for  distinction.  On 
November  5th  the  Russians  attempted  an  attack  upon  the  opposite  end 
of  the  allied  line  on  the  heights  of  Inkerman,  occupied  solely  by  British 
troops.  According  to  their  plan  a  sortie  from  Sebastopol  was  to  assault 
the  extreme  end  of  the  allied  line,  and  at  the  same  time  a  body  of  troops 
from  Menschikoft's  army  was  to  assault  the  position  in  flank.  The  at- 
tack was  made  in  the  early  morning,  when  the  slopes  were  covered  with 
mist.  The  natural  way  to  repel  such  an  attack  was  for  the  oudying 
pickets  to  fall  back  on  the  main  body,  and  so  concentrate  on  some  defen- 
sible position  ;  but,  partly  through  the  mist,  and  partly  through  the  un- 
willingness of  the  British  to  retreat  at  all,  the  battle  took  the  form  of  the 
outlying  positions  being  defended,  and  the  pickets  reinforced  from  the 
main  body.      Such  a  method  of  fighting  was   contrary   to  all  rule,  and  in- 


STORY   OF    ONE    HUNDRED   YEARS.  38 


o'-'O 


volved  the  greatest  risk,  for  had  the  Russians  broken  through  any  point, 
the  whole  defence  must  have  collapsed.  Luckily  for  the  British  the  mist 
stood  them  in  good  stead  by  preventing  the  Russians  from  seeing  the 
exact  state  of  affairs  ;  and  the  tenacity  and  courage  with  which  all  ranks 
fought  were  beyond  praise.  The  loss,  however,  was  most  serious,  and 
had  it  not  been  for  the  French,  who  moved  up  troops  in  sufficient  num- 
bers to  give  an  effective  support  to  the  scattered  British  regiments,  it  is 
difficult  to  see  how  the  Russian  masses  could  in  the  long  run  have  been 
defeated  by  such  a  method  of  fighting.  Nevertheless,  victory  declared 
for  the  rllies,  and  had  the  French  been  willing  to  engage  in  a  vigorous 
pursuit,  the  Russian  defeat  might  have  been  converted  into  a  rout. 

SUFFERINGS  OF  THE  TROOPS. 

After  the  battle  of  Inkerman  the  Russians  gave  up  for  a  time  their 
operations  in  the  open  field,  but  their  inaction  gave  little  respite  to  the 
allied  troops.  The  necessity  for  engaging  in  a  prolonged  siege  had  en- 
tirely altered  the  character  of  the  campaign  and  compelled  the  allies  to 
winter  in  the  Crimea.  For  this  they  were  totally  unprepared.  Losses 
by  battle  and  sickness  had  reduced  the  strength  of  the  British  contingent 
to  16,000  men,  a  number  so  small  as  to  throw  upon  individuals  a  dispro- 
portionate amount  of  work,  and  reinforcements  were  slow  in  coming. 
The  distance  of  the  British  camp  from  Balaklava,  some  ten  miles,  trav- 
ersed by  a  miserable  road,  made  it  hard  to  get  supplies.  In  a  terrible 
storm  on  the  14th  of  November,  two  vessels,  one  containing  warm  cloth- 
inor  the  other  ammunition,  were  sunk  in  Balaklava  harbor.  The  winter 
proved  to  be  exceptionally  severe  ;  and  it  was  hard  for  the  troops, 
camped  on  a  wind-swept  plateau,  or  shivering  in  the  wet  trenches,  to 
keep  themselves  warm.  All  these  things  would  have  tried  the  re- 
sources of  any  country  ;  and  they  proved  far  too  severe  for  the  British 
ministry  of  Lord  Aberdeen.  Forty  years  of  peace  seem  to  have  been 
fatal  to  the  efficiency  of  the  British  War  Department.  The  most  gro- 
tesque blunders  were  committed.  A  consignment  of  boots,  all  for  the 
left  foot,  was  sent  out  because  the  Ministers  had  provided  no  efficient 
way  of  checking  the  stores.  No  care  was  taken  even  to  see  that  those 
who  were  to  superintend  the  hospital  knew  their  business.  Medical 
stores  were  sent  out  in  abundance,  but  men  were  allowed  to  die  for  want 
of  them,  because  no  official  authority  had  been  given  for  serving"  them 


3S4  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

out.  No  proper  appliances  for  cooking  their  rations  were  given  to  the 
soldiers;  and  lastly,  while  sending  out  horses  and  mules  ior  the  trans- 
port service,  the  British  Treasury  refused  to  send  out  any  hay  on  which  to 
feed  them.  Moreover,  the  officers  and  men  themselves  did  not  show  the  re- 
sources they  might  have  done  in  coping  with  the  difficulties,  and  the  con- 
dition of  the  army  became  pitiable  in  the  extreme.  It  is  true  the  French 
were  nearly  as  bad  off,  but  as  there  were  more  of  them,  work  fell  heavily 
on  them  as  individuals  ;  and  the  French  soldiers  certainly  showed  more 
skill  than  the  British  in  making  themselves  comfortable  under  difficulties. 

MINISTERIAL  CHANGES   IN   ENGLAND. 

Doubtless  there  had  been  other  campaigns  where  the  British  troops 
had  had  to  bear  similar  hardships ;  but  in  former  days  the  exact  state  of 
the  army  was  little  known  at  home,  except  to  the  authorities.  In  the 
Russian  campaign  for  the  first  time  the  special  correspondents  of  news- 
papers, and  especially  Dr.  William  Russell,  of  the  London  "Times," 
kept  the  public  thoroughly  informed  of  what  was  going  on.  The  natural 
result  was  an  outburst  of  vehement  indignation  against  the  Govern- 
ment. Of  this,  Mr.  Roebuck  made  himself  the  mouthpiece,  and  carried 
a  proposal  to  the  House  of  Commons  that  a  commission  should  be 
appointed  into  the  conduct  of  the  war.  The  proposal  was  regarded  as 
a  vote  of  want  of  confidence  in  the  Government.  Lord  Aberdeen  at 
once  resigned,  and  his  place  was  taken  by  Palmerston. 

What  the  country  really  wanted  was  to  have  a  strong  man  at  the 
head  of  affairs.  It  had  no  confidence  in  Lord  Aberdeen  ;  it  did  believe 
in  Lord  Palmerston  ;  and  as  soon  as  he  was  at  the  head  of  affairs,  confi- 
dence was  restored.  Nevertheless  the  House  was  determined  to  have 
its  commission  of  inquiry,  and  Mr.  Gladstone  and  other  Peelites,  who 
had  at  first  retained  office  under  Lord  Palmerston,  decided  to  resign. 
The  commission  did  much  good  ;  and  its  report  should  be  a  warning  to 
Governments  for  all  time.  Its  inquiries  showed  distinctly  that  the  mis- 
management complained  of  was  to  be  traced,  not  so  much  to  the  faults 
of  individuals,  as  to  the  absurd  system  by  which  Great  Britain  had  allowed 
the  machinery  for  making  war  to  grow  rusty  and  obsolete  in  time  of 
peace,  and  also  to  the  foolish  arrangement  by  which  sub-division  of 
responsibility  was  carried  so  far  as  to  make  it  almost  impossible  to  say 
who  was  really  to  blame  for  any  particular  mistake  or  omission.    Without 


RUTHERFORD  HAYES 


CHESTER  A.ARTHUR 


ANDREW  JOHNSON 


ULYSSE5  S.GRANT 


BENJAMIN  HARRISON 


„AME5  A.GARFIELD 


LVELAND 


1865— PRESIDENTS  "F  THE  UNITED  STATES  DURING  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY 


u 

<; 

O 
u 

Q 

< 

J 

ei 
W 
> 

o 

< 

o 
z 

5 
u 
< 


t/5 

z 


z 

7 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  38/ 

waiting  for  the  report,  however,  Lord  Palmerston's  Government  worked 
hard  to  improve  the  existing  state  of  affairs.  Even  before  the  fall  of  Lord 
Aberdeen,  Mr.  Sidney  Herbert  had  persuaded  Miss  Florence  Nightingale 
to  go  out  to  Constantinople  and  see  what  could  be  done  for  the  reorgan- 
ization of  the  nursing  in  the  hospitals  there  ;  and  the  Duke  of  Newcastle 
had  suggested  to  the  Cabinet  the  construction  of  a  railway  to  bring  stores 
from  Balaklava  to  the  camp.  From  Miss  Nightingale's  reports  Lord 
Palmerston  learned  what  should  be  done,  and  so  energetic  were  the  steps 
taken  that,  whereas  under  Lord  Aberdeen  the  deaths  in  the  hospital  at 
Scutari  had  been  50  per  cent,  of  those  admitted,  under  Lord  Palmerston 
they  were  enormously  reduced.  The  railway  also  from  Balaklava — the 
necessity  for  which  should  have  been  obvious  to  any  Government — was 
at  once  made  by  the  new  ministers.  Energy  and  order  were  infused 
everywhere  ;  and  before  summer  the  efficiency  of  the  army  in  the  Crimea 
had  been  restored,  though  at  the  best  it  was  so  small  that  henceforward 
the  French  took  perforce  the  leading  part  in  all  military  operations.  They 
even  took  over  from  the  British  the  north-eastern  end  of  the  trenches, 
and  the  attack  on  the  Malakoff  and  Litde  Redan.  In  January,  1855,  the 
allied  forces  were  strengthened  by  the  arrival  of  18,000  Sardinian  troops 
under  La  Marmora. 

REDAN   AND   MALAKOFF. 

The  disasters  of  1854  were  a  bitter  humiliation  to  Nicholas,  and  prob- 
ably hastened  his  death,  which  occurred  on  March  3,  1855.  His  succes- 
sor, Alexander  II,  was  more  pacifically  disposed,  and  it  was  hoped  that 
his  accession  might  lead  to  the  conclusion  of  peace.  But  the  military 
honor  of  the  allies  could  only  be  satisfied  by  the  capture  of  Sebastopol, 
and  hostilities  were  soon  renewed.  The  English  fleet  rendered  conspic- 
uous service  by  destroying  the  Russian  base  of  supplies,  but  the  garrison, 
which  was  now  commanded  by  Gortschakoff,  held  out  with  unflinching 
courage.  A  erand  assault,  in  which  the  Entrlish  attacked  the  Redan  and 
the  French  the  Malakoff,  was  repulsed  with  great  loss  (June  18).  The 
French  were  now  commanded  by  Pelissier,  who  had  superseded  Can- 
robert,  the  successor  of  St.  Arnaud.  On  the  death  of  Lord  Raglan 
(June  28),  General  Simpson  undertook  the  command  of  the  English 
army.  Although  the  two  armies  supported  each  other  with  creditable 
loyalty,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  dual  command  was  a  great 
obstacle  to  the  success  of  the   besiegers.     On  August  i6th  a  Russian  at- 


388  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

tack  was  repulsed  with  great  loss  on  the  Tschernaya,  a  battle  in  which  the 
Sardinian  contineent  distinguished  itself.  The  allies  had  at  last  sue- 
ceeded  in  bringing  a  superior  force  of  artillery  to  bear  upon  the  fortress, 
and  on  the  17th  the  final  bombardment  was  commenced.  For  twenty- 
three  days  the  batteries  kept  up  an  almost  incessant  fire,  which  inflicted 
terrible  damage.  On  September  8th  a  terrible  as?ault  was  ordered.  The 
French  stormed  the  Malakoff,  but  the  English,  after  carrying  the  Redan, 
were  compelled  to  retreat  for  want  of  support.  The  Russian  position, 
however,  was  no  longer  tenable,  and  on  the  loth  Gortschakoff  evacuated 
Sebastopol  and  retired  to  the  north  side  of  the  harbor. 

The  success  of  the  allies  was  by  no  means  complete.  The  Russians 
still  occupied  a  very  strong  position,  and  the  war  might  have  been  indefi- 
nitely prolonged  if  the  people  had  not  begun  to  murmur  at  the  heavy 
burdens  imposed  upon  them.  The  fall  of  the  Asiatic  fortress  of  Kars 
(November  28,  1855)  was  a  salve  to  the  military  vanity  of  Russia.  Aus- 
tria undertook  to  mediate  ;  the  basis  of  a  pacification  was  agreed  upon 
in  January,  1856,  and  an  armistice  was  concluded.  A  conference  met  at 
Paris,  where  the  final  treaty  was  signed  on  March  30th, 

TERMS  or  PEACE. 

The  Russian  protectorate  over  the  Danubian  Principalities  was 
abolished  ;  the  free  navigation  of  the  Danube  was  to  be  secured  by  the  ap- 
pointment of  an  international  commission  ;  the  Black  Sea  was  neutralized, 
and  all  ships  of  war,  including  those  of  Turkey  and  Russia,  were  to  be  ex- 
cluded, except  a  small  number  of  light  vessels  to  protect  the  coasts  ;  the 
Sultan  undertook  to  confirm  the  privileged  of  his  Christian  subjects,  but  the 
Powers  agreed  not  to  use  this  as  a  pretext  for  interfering  with  his  domes- 
tic administration  ;  the  convention  of  1841  about  the  Straits  was  con- 
firmed ;  and  the  Porte  was  to  be  admitted  to  all  the  advantages  of  public 
law  and  the  P^uropean  concert.  Russia  agreed  to  restore  Kars  and  to 
retire  from  the  Danube  by  ceding  a  strip  of  Bessarabia  to  Roumania, 
while  the  allied  were  to  evacuate  Sebastopol  and  all  other  conquests  in 
the  Crimea.  These  terms  were  accepted  by  six  powers,  viz.  :  France, 
Austria,  Great  Britain,  Prussia,  Russia  and  Sardinia.  A  fortnight  later 
France,  Austria  and  Great  Britain  concluded  a  separate  agreement  to 
guarantee  the  independence  and  integrity  of  the  Turkish  Empire.  In 
1858  the  signatories  of  the  treaty  of  Paris  arranged  a  convention  to  settle 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  389 

the  relations  of  Moldavia  and  Wallachia.  They  were  to  be  ruled  by  sep- 
arate princes,  who  were  to  be  chosen  by  the  assembly  of  each  principal- 
ity, and  they  were  to  pay  a  tribute  to  the  Porte.  But  the  two  princi- 
palities elected  the  same  prince,  Alexander  Cusa,  and  in  1659  the  con- 
vention was  modified  to  allow  them  to  become  one  State  under  the 
name  of  Roumania.  In  1866  Prince  Alexander  was  deposed  and  Rou- 
mania  fell  under  the  rule  of  Prince  Charles  of  Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. 

TURKISH  REFORMS. 

The  Hatti  Humayoun,  or  Imperial  Proclamation  of  the  Turkish 
Government,  was  issued  on  February  iS,  1856.  This  forbade  in  general 
terms  all  discriminations  against  Christians,  or  distinctions  in  civil  affairs 
between  the  followers  of  the  two  religions,  and  it  opened  the  military 
service  of  the  Empire,  even  in  the  highest  grades,  to  Christians.  This 
latter  provision  was  bitterly  opposed  by  both  Christians  and  Mohamme- 
dans, but  was  insisted  upon  by  the  Sultan.  Despite  this  decree,  however, 
the  hostility  of  Turkey  toward  all  foreign  Christians  steadily  increased. 
Outbreaks  occurred  against  the  latter  m  various  parts  of  the  Empire, 
and  it  became  evident  that  intervention  would  again  be  necessary. 

REVOLUTION  IN  SPAIN. 

The  tortuous  current  of  Spanish  politics  led  to  another  revolution  in 
July,  1854.  In  185 1  the  Government  had  signed  an  agreement  with  the 
Pope,  by  which  all  schools  were  placed  under  the  control  of  the  church, 
and  all  newspapers  and  other  publications  were  subjected  to  priestly 
censorship.  It  was  also  proposed  to  make  such  amendments  to  the 
constitution  as  would  annul  the  power  of  the  Cortes  and  make  the 
sovereign  practically  absolute.  Against  these  things  the  army  and  the 
working-men  of  the  larg-e  cities  combined  in  a  successful  revolution,  and 
for  two  years  Espartero  and  Marshal  O'Donnell  conducted  the  Govern- 
ment on  a  more  liberal  basis.  Indeed,  O'Donnell  remained  Prime 
Minister  until  1863. 

BRITISH  WAR  WITH  CHINA. 

Great  Britain's  second  war  with  China  was  due  to  the  overbearing 
policy  of  Lord  Palmerston.  France  readily  allied  herself  with  Great 
Britain,  and  a  joint  expedition  was  sent  to  the  Chinese  coast,  of  which  we 
shall  hear  more  in  a  subsequent  chapter. 


390  STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED   YEARS. 

OPENING  OF  JAPAN. 

Down  to  the  time  of  which  we  are  writing,''  Japan  had  been  practically 
a  closed  country,  having  little  intercourse  with  other  lands,  and  treatinjj^ 
with  savage  inhospitality  all  foreigners  who  strove  to  enter  the  island 
Empire.  The  task  of  breaking  down  the  barriers  of  seclusion  was 
undertaken  by  the  United  States.  On  July  8,  1853,  an  American  fleet 
of  warships  suddenly,  without  warning,  appeared  in  the  bay  of  Yeddo, 
and  its  commander,  Commodore  Perry,  demanded  to  be  placed  in  con- 
ference with  the  highest  dignitaries  ot  the  Empire.  A  letter  which  he 
bore  from  the  President  to  the  Emperor  was  delivered.  Then  he  sailed 
away,  but  returned  the  next  spring  for  an  answer  to  the  letter.  The 
answer  was  favorable,  and  on  May  31,  1854,  the  first  treaty  between 
Japan  and  a  foreign  power  was  signed.  Under  its  provisions  the  two 
ports  of  Shimoda  and  Hakodate  were  opened  to  American  commerce, 
an  American  consul  was  permitted  to  reside  at  Shimoda,  and  Americans 
were  allowed  to  enter  and  travel  in  the  country  to  a  certain  extent. 
Similar  treaties  were  soon  made  with  other  nations,  and  thus  Japan  was 
opened  to  friendly  intercourse  with  the  world. 

MINOR  INCIDENTS. 

We  may  also  note  in  passing  the  accession  of  Said  Pasha  as  Khedive 
of  Egypt,  in  succession  to  Abbas,  in  1854,  the  establishment  of  the 
Orange  River  Free  State  in  the  same  year,  the  British  annexation  of 
Oude  in  1856,- and  the  war  between  Persia  and  Great  Britain,  which 
began  with  Persia's  invasion  of  Afghanistan  in  1856,  and  ended  in 
British  success  in  the  following  year.  In  1854  Russia  continued  her 
Central  Asian  aggressions  by  wresting  a  highly  advantageous  treaty  from 
the  Khan  of  Khiva,  which  made  him  practically  a  vassal  of  Russia. 


?3 
IT- 


'S- 

»— i 

K 
> 

s 

w 

> 

on 

Z 

o 

H 
EC 
?: 
C 

C 

c 

H 

ac 

K 

cr. 
C 

n 
> 
z 

> 
r 


^■'■^f-t  ^'.-^ 


X 


< 

Di 
U 

u 
< 

Qu, 
< 

H 
Z 

u 

o 

O 
Z 

Z 
W 
a< 
O 


S 


CHAPTER  XXX. 


Doctor  Kane's  Search  for  Franklin — The  North-West  Passage — New  York 

Crystal   Palace — Livingstone's    Explorations — His    First   Work   in 

Africa — Important   Discoveries — Crossing  the  Continent — 

Victoria  Falls — Niagara  Suspension  Bridge — 

Various  Incidents. 


THE  labors  of  Arctic  research,  to  which  we  have  already  alluded, 
were  continued  pretty  persistently  after  the  disastrous  adventure 
of  Sir  John  Franklin.  Conspicuous  among  the  expeditions  which 
went  to  the  North  to  seek  tidings  of  Franklin  were  those  sent  out 
by  Mr.  Grinnell,  a  merchant  of  New  York.  The  first  of  these  was  fitted 
out  in  1850,  in  the  ships  "Advance"  and  "Rescue,"  under  the  command 
of  Lieutenant  De  Haven.  The  surgeon  and  naturalist  of  this  expedition 
was  Elisha  Kent  Kane,  a  physician  who  had  already  had  a  romantic  and 
distinguished  career  as  a  scientific  explorer  in  various  lands.  The  expe- 
dition was  absent  sixteen  months,  and  found  no  trace  of  Franklin.  On 
his  return  Dr.  Kane  wrote  an  interesting  account  of  the  expedition  and 
also  put  forth  his  theory  of  an  open  Polar  sea.  At  his  earnest  solici- 
tation a  second  expedition  was  fitted  out  by  Mr.  Grinnell,  Mr.  Peabody 
and  others.  It  sailed  in  the  ship  "Advance"  in  June,  1853,  and  two 
months  later  reached  Rensselaer  Bay,  on  the  coast  of  Greenland.  There 
the  ship  was  left,  and  the  explorers  proceeded  with  boats  and  sledges. 
During  the  first  winter  a  latitude  of  79  deg.  50  min.  was  reached,  though 
at  the  cost  of  terrible  suffering.  During  the  second  year  the  explorers 
stuck  manfully  to  their  work,  despite  famine  and  disease,  and  made  scien- 
tific observations — magnetic,  meteorological,  astronomical  and  tidal — 
incomparably  surpassing  in  completeness  and  value  all  that  had  gone 
before.     Indeed,  this  was  the  first  great  scientific  expedition. 

One  of  Dr.  Kane's  comrades,  Mr.  Morton,  went  up  Kennedy 
Channel  as  far  as  latitude  81  deg.  22  min.,  and  there  saw  what  he  and 
Kane  firmly,  though  erroneously,  believed  to  be  the  open  Polar  Sea. 
On  May  17,  1855,  the  ship  was  abandoned  and  an  overland  retreat 
made  to  Upernavik,  which  place  was  reached  in  August.  Dr.  Kane 
21  393 


394  STORY    OF   ONE    HUNURKD    YEARS. 

published  an  account  of  his  expedition,  in  two  volumes,  which  was  down 
to  that  time  the  most  interesting  and  important  contribution  made  to 
Arctic  literature.  Dr.  Kane,  whose  health  was  always  fragile,  died  in 
1857,  at  the  early  age  of  thirty-seven,  leaving  a  name  that  must  always 
stand  in  the  foremost  rank  of  Arctic  explorers. 

THE   NORTH-WEST    PASSAGE. 

Meantime  others  were  busy  looking  for  the  North-West  passage  which 
had  lured  Franklin  to  his  fate.  A  British  expedition  led  by  McClure 
had  spent  the  winter  of  1850-51  at  the  Princess  Royal  Islands,  only 
thirty  miles  from  Barrow  Strait.  He  ascended  a  hill  whence  he  could  see 
the  frozen  surface  of  Barrow  Strait,  which  had  been  navigated  by  Parry 
thirty  years  before.  Thus  he  discovered  the  North-West  Passage,  though 
he  did  not  navigate  it.  It  was  impossible  to  reach  it,  for  the  palaeocrystic 
ice  which  had  baffled  Franklin  was  before  him,  barring  further  progress 
of  his  ship.  In  1851,  therefore,  McClure  turned  to  the  south,  and  made 
his  way  around  Baring  Island.  The  voyage  was  one  of  great  difficulties 
and  dangers.  For  a  long  distance  they  sailed  along  a  narrow  passage,  with 
the  rocky  cliffs  of  the  shore  rising  perpendicularly  at  one  side,  and  the 
palaiocrystic  ice  rose  in  a  solid  wall  at  the  other  side,  as  high  as  the  ship's 
yards.  A  trip  was  made  on  land  across  Melville  Land,  and  then,  in  the 
spring  of  1853,  McClure  prepared  to  abandon  his  ship  and  beat  a  retreat 
in  boats,  but  happily  was  reached  by  a  relief  party  in  time. 

The  explorations  of  McClintock,  Rae,  Inglefield  and  others  were 
conducted  during  the  years  1853-59,  and  added  much  to  the  world's 
knowledge  of  the  frozen  realm  of  the  far  North. 

NEW  YORK  CRYSTAL   PALACE. 

We  have  elsewhere  spoken  of  the  opening  of  the  World's  Fair  in 
the  Crystal  Palace  in  New  York  City.  This  famous  building  stood  on 
what  is  now  known  as  Bryant  Park,  at  Sixth  avenue  and  40th-42d  streets. 
That  locality  was  then  suburban  and  semi-rural,  though  now  in  the 
heart  of  the  city.  An  interesting  indication  of  the  growth  of  New  York 
since  that  time  is  to  be  had  in  the  fact  that  the  newspapers  of  the  day  re- 
ferred to  the  "enormous  throngs  of  people"  who  were  present  at  the 
inaugural  ceremonies  of  the  Crystal  Palace,  adding  that  they  must  have 
numbered  as  many  as  2000  souls  ! 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  395 

The  first  World's  Fair  in  Paris  was  held  in  1855,  being  gotten  up  by 
Louis  Napoleon  to  strengthen  the  hold  of  his  new  Empire  upon  the  affec- 
tions of  the  pleasure-loving  people. 

LIVINGTONE'S  EXPLORATIONS. 

While  men  were  busy  exploring  the  Arctic  regions,  one  of  the  world's 
greatest  explorers  was  busy  in  the  lands  under  the  equator.  David 
Livingstone  (1813-1S73),  missionary  and  explorer,  was  born  on  March 
19,  18 1 3,  at  the  village  of  Blantyre  Works,  in  Lanarkshire,  Scotland. 
David  was  the  second  child  of  his  parents,  Neil  Livingston  (for  so  he 
spelled  his  name,  as  did  his  son  for  many  years)  and  Agnes  Hunter. 
His  parents  were  poor  and  self-respecting,  typical  examples  of  all  that  is 
best  among  the  humbler  families  of  Scotland.  At  the  age  of  ten  years 
David  left  the  village  school  for  the  neighboring  cotton  mill,  and  by  stren- 
uous efforts  he  qualified  himself  at  the  age  of  twenty-three  to  undertake 
a  college  curriculum.  He  attended  for  two  sessions  the  medical  and 
the  Greek  classes  in  Anderson's  College,  and  also  a  theological  class. 
In  September,  1838,  he  went  to  London,  and  was  accepted  by  the 
London  Missionary  Society  as  a  candidate.  During  the  next  two  years 
he  resided  mostly  in  London,  diligently  attending  medical  and  science 
classes,  and  spending  part  of  his  time  with  the  Rev.  Mr.  Cecil  at  Ongar  in 
Essex,  studying  theology  and  learning  to  preach.  He  took  his  medical  de- 
gree in  the  Faculty  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  in  Glasgow  in  November, 
1840.  Livingstone  had  from  the  first  set  his  heart  on  China,  and  it  was 
a  great  disappointment  to  him  that  the  Society  finally  decided  to  send 
him  to  Africa.  To  an  exterior  in  these  early  years  somewhat  heavy  and 
uncouth,  he  united  a  manner  which,  by  universal  testimony,  was  irresisti- 
bly winning,  with  a  fund  of  genuine  but  simple  humor  and  fun  that 
would  break  out  on  the  most  unlikely  occasions,  and  in  after  years  enabled 
him  to  overcome  difficulties  and  mellow  refractory  chiefs  when  all 
other  methods  failed. 

HIS   FIRST  WORK  IN  AFRICA. 

Livingstone  sailed  from  England  on  December  8,  1840.  From 
Algoa  Bay  he  made  direct  for  Kuruman,  the  mission  station,  700  miles 
north,  established  by  Hamilton  and  Moffat  thirty  years  before,  and 
chere  he  arrived  on  July  31,  1841.     The   next  two  years  Livingstone 


396  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

spent  in  traveling  about  the  country  to  the  northwards  in  search  of  a 
suitable  outpost  for  settlement.  During  these  two  years  he  had  already 
become  convinced  that  the  success  of  the  white  missionary  in  a  field  like 
Africa  is  not  to  be  reckoned  by  the  tale  of  doubtful  conversions  he  can 
send  home  each  year.  That  the  proper  work  for  such  men  was  that  of 
pioneering,  opening  up  and  starting  new  ground,  leaving  native  agents 
to  work  it  out  in  detail.  The  whole  of  his  subsequent  career  was  a 
development  of  this  idea. 

IMPORTANT  DISCOVERIES. 

He  selected  the  valley  of  Mabotsa,  on  one  of  the  sources  of  the 
Limpopo  River,  200  miles  north-east  of  the  Kuruman,  as  his  first  station. 
It  was  shortly  after  his  settlement  here  that  he  was  attacked  by  a  lion, 
which  crushed  his  left  arm  and  nearly  put  an  end  to  his  career.  The  arm 
was  imperfectly  set,  and  it  was  a  source  of  trouble  to  him  at  times 
throughout  his  life,  and  was  the  means  of  identifying  his  body  after  his 
death.  To  a  house,  mainly  built  by  himself  at  Mabotsa,  Livingstone  in 
1844  brought  home  his  wife,  Mary  Moffat,  the  daughter  of  Moffat,  of 
Kuruman.  Here  he  labored  till  1846,  when  he  removed  to  Chonuane, 
40  miles  further  north,  the  chief  place  of  the  Bakwaim  tribe  under 
Sechele.  In  1847  ^^^  again  removed  to  Kolobeng,  about  40  miles  west- 
ward, the  whole  tribe  following  their  missionary.  With  the  help  of  and 
in  the  company  of  two  English  sportsmen,  Mr.  Oswell  and  Mr.  Murray^ 
he  was  able  to  undertake  a  journey  of  great  importance  to  Lake  Ngami, 
which  had  never  yet  been  seen  by  a  white  man.  Crossing  the  Kalahari 
Desert,  of  which  Livingstone  gave  the  first  detailed  account,  they  reached 
the  lake  August  i,  1849.  In  April  of  the  next  year  he  made  an  attempt 
to  reach  Sebituane,  who  lived  200  miles  beyond  the  lake,  this  time  in 
company  with  his  wife  and  children,  but  again  got  no  further  than  the 
lake,  as  the  children  were  seized  with  fever.  A  year  later,  April,  1851, 
Livingstone,  again  accompanied  by  his  family  and  Mr.  Oswell,  set  out 
this  time  with  the  intention  of  settling  among  the  Makololo  for  a  period. 
At  last  he  succeeded,  and  reached  the  Chobe,  a  southern  tributary  of  the 
Zambesi,  and  in  the  end  of  June  discovered  the  Zambesi  itself  at  the 
town  of  Sesheke.  Leaving  the  Chobe  on  August  1 3th  the  party  reached 
Capetown  in  April,  1852.  Livingstone  may  now  be  said  to  have  com 
pleted  the  first  period  of  his  career    in    Africa,  the  period    in  which  the 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  397 

work  of  the  missionary  had  the  greatest  prominence.  Henceforth  he 
appears  more  in  the  character  of  an  explorer,  but  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  he  regarded  himself  to  the  last  as  a  pioneer  missionary,  whose 
work  was  to  open  up  the  country  to  others. 

CROSSING  THE  CONTINENT. 

Having,  with  a  sad  heart,  seen  his  family  off  to  England,  Livingstone 
left  the  Cape  on  June  8,  1852,  and  reached  Linyanti,  the  capital  of  the 
Makololo,  on  the  Chobe,  on  May  23,  1853,  received  in  royal  style  by 
Sekeletu,  and  welcomed  by  all  the  people.  His  first  object  in  this  jour- 
ney was  to  seek  for  some  healthy,  high  land  in  which  to  plant  a  station. 
Ascending  the  Zambesi  he,  however,  found  no  place  free  from  the  de- 
structive tsetse  insect,  and  therefore  resolved  to  discover  a  route  to  the 
interior  from  either  the  west  or  east  coast.  To  accompany  Livingstone 
in  his  hazardous  undertaking  twenty-seven  men  were  selected  from  the 
various  tribes  under  Sekeletu,  partly  with  a  view  to  open  up  a  trade  route 
between  their  own  country  and  the  coast.  The  start  was  made  from 
Linyanti  on  November  11,  1853,  and  by  ascending  the  Leeba,  Lake 
Dilolo  was  reached  on  February'  20,  1854.  On  April  4th  the  Congo  was 
crossed,  and  on  May  31st  the  town  of  Loanda  was  entered,  much  to  the 
joy  of  the  men  ;  their  leader,  however,  being  all  but  dead  from  fever, 
semi-starvation  and  dysentery.  Livingstone  speaks  in  the  warmest 
terms  of  the  generosity  of  the  Portuguese  merchants  and  officials. 
From  Loanda  Livingstone  sent  his  astronomical  observations  to  Maclear 
at  the  Cape,  and  an  account  of  his  journey  to  the  Royal  Geographical 
Society,  which  in  May,  1855,  awarded  him  its  highest  honor,  its  gold 
medal.  Loanda  was  left  on  September  20,  1854,  but  Livingstone 
lineered  alonsf  about  the  Portugfuese  settlements.  Making  a  slight  de- 
tour  to  the  north  to  Cabango,  the  party  reached  Lake  Dilolo  on  June 
13th.  Here  Livingstone  made  a  careful  study  of  the  watershed  of  the 
country  in  what  is,  perhaps,  the  most  complicated  river  system  in  the 
world.  He  "  now  for  the  first  time  apprehended  the  true  form  of  the 
river  systems  and  the  continent,"  and  the  conclusions  he  came  to  have 
been  essentially  confirmed. 

VICTORIA  FALLS. 

For  Livingtone's  purposes  the  route  to  the  west  was   unavailable, 
and  he  decided  to  follow  the  Zambesi  to  its   mouth.     With  a  numerous 


398  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

following  he  left  Linyanti  on  November  8,  1855.  A  fortnight  afterwards 
he  made  the  great  discovery  with  which,  in  popular  imagination,  his  name 
is  more  intimately  associated  than  with  anything  else  he  did — the  famous 
"Victoria"  Falls  of  the  Zambesi,  which,  after  a  second  examination  in 
his  subsequent  journey,  he  concluded  to  be  due  to  an  immense  fissure  or 
fault  right  across  the  bed  of  the  river,  which  was  one  means  of  draining 
off  the  waters  of  the  great  lake  that  he  supposed  must  have  at  one  time 
occupied  the  centre  of  the  continent.  He  had  already  formed  a  true  idea 
of  the  configuration  of  the  continent  as  a  great  hollow  or  basin-shaped 
plateau,  surrounded  by  a  ring  of  mountains.  Livingstone  reached  the 
Portuguese  settlement  of  Tette  on  March  2,  1856,  in  a  very  emaciated 
condition,  and  after  six  weeks  left  his  men  well  cared  for  and  proceeded 
to  Kilimane,  where  he  arrived  on  May  20,  thus  having  completed,  in  two 
years  and  six  months,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  and  fruitful  journeys 
on  record.  The  results  in  geography  and  in  natural  science  in  all  its 
departments  were  abundant  and  accurate  ;  his  observations  necessitated 
a  reconstruction  of  the  map  of  central  Africa.  Men  of  the  highest  emi- 
nence in  all  departments  of  science  testified  to  the  highest  value  of 
Livingstone's  work.  When  Livingstone  began  his  work  in  Africa  it  was 
virtually  a  blank  from  Kuruman  to  Timbuctoo. 

On  December  12th  he  arrived  in  England,  after  an  absence  of  six- 
teen  years,  and  met  everywhere  with  the  welcome  of  a  hero.  He  told 
his  story  in  his  "  Missionary  Travels  and  Researches  Jn  South  Africa" 
(1857)  with  straightforward  simplicity,  and  with  no  effort  after  literary 
style.  Its  publication  brought  what  he  would  have  considered  a  com- 
petency had  he  felt  himself  at  liberty  to  settle  down  for  life.  In  1857 
he  severed  his  connection  with  the  London  Missionary  Society,  with  whom, 
however,  he  always  remained  on  the  best  of  terms,  and  in  February, 
1858,  he  accepted  the  appointment  of  "  Her  Majesty's  Consul  at  Kilimane 
for  the  eastern  coast  and  the  independent  districts  in  the  interior,  and 
commander  of  an  expedition  for  exploring  eastern  and  central  Africa." 

NIAGAEtA  SUSPENSION  BRIDGE. 

The  year  1854  was  made  notable  in  the  annals  of  engineering  by  the 
construction  of  the  suspension  bridge  across  the  Niagara  River.  This 
form  of  bridofe  was  of  American  origin,  the  first  havinof  been  built  in  1801 
over  Jacob's  Creek,  near  Greensburg,  Pennsylvania.     It   had   a   span  of 


STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS.  399 

70  feet,  and  was  suspended  by  chains.  Others  were  soon  built  of  longer 
span.  One  over  the  Schuylkill  River,  in  1808,  had  a  span  of  306  feet, 
but  was  partly  supported  by  an  intermediate  pier.  The  next  year  one 
was  built  at  Newburyport,  Mass.,  with  a  clear  span  of  240  feet,  and  in 
181 5  one  in  Allentown,  Pa.,  had  two  spans  of  230  feet  each.  All  these 
were  made  of  chains.  The  first  wire  cable  suspension  bridge  was  built 
in  1816  across  the  Schuylkill  River,  at  Philadelphia,  with  a  span  of  408 
feet.  In  1846  Charles  Ellet  "built  the  Monongahela  bridge  at  Pittsburg, 
Pa.,  with  eight  spans  of  188  feet  each,  and  declared  it  to  be  his  conviction 
that  a  span  of  1500  feet  was  practicable,  and  could  be  made  safe  for  rail- 
road trains — a  prediction  which  has  since  been  splendidly  vindicated.  In 
1848  he  built  the  great  bridge  at  Wheeling,  over  the  Ohio  River,  with  a 
span  of  loio  feet,  the  longest  in  the  world  at  that  time.  It  was  supported 
by  twelve  cables,  with  a  total  of  6600  wires.  This  bridge  was  blown 
down  by  a  storm  in  1854,  nearly  all  the  cables  breaking  at  the 
anchorage. 

The  year  that  saw  the  fall  of  the  Wheeling  bridge  saw,  however,  the 
completion  of  that  at  Niagara.  This  latter  was  built  by  John  A.  Roebling, 
on  a  new  plan  devised  by  himself  which  has  since  been  universally  used. 
Thus  this  bridge  was  the  true  prototype  of  all  that  have  been  built  since, 
and  Roebling  may  be  esteemed  the  founder  of  the  system.  The  Niagara 
Bridge  was  built  with  a  span  of  821  feet,  with  two  roadways,  one  above 
the  other,  each  fifteen  feet  wide,  one  for  railroad  trains  and  one  for 
ordinary  traffic. 

VARIOUS  INCIDENTS. 

We  must  note  briefly  in  passing  the  annexation  of  New  Caledonia 
by  France,  for  use  as  a  penal  colony,  in  1853  ;  the  promulgation  of  the 
Papal  doctrine  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  in  1854;  the  opening  of 
the  railway  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  and  the  death  of  Mickiewicz, 
the  Polish  poet,  in  1855  ;  and  the  death  of  Heine,  the  poet.  Sir  William 
Hamilton,  the  philosopher,  and  Delaroche,  the  painter,  in  1S56. 

One  of  the  chief  literary  incidents  of  these  years  was  the  publication 
of  Mrs.  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe's  anti-slavery  story,  "  Uncle  Tom's 
Cabin,"  which,  written  and  first  printed  in  1852,  by  1856  was  circulated 
to  the  extent  of  more  than  500,000  copies  in  the  United  States  alone, 
and  was  translated  into  more  than  twenty-five  European  and  Asiatic 
languages. 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 


James  Buchanan  becomes   President   of  the   United  States — Troubles  in 

Kansas — John  Brown  at  Harper's  Ferry — The  Dred -Scott  Decision — 

Lincoln  and  Douglas — Lincoln  Elected  President — Secession — 

Attitude  of  the  Washington  Government — Incidents 

of  the  Administration. 


IN  1857  Franklin  Pierce  was  succeeded  as  President  of  the  United 
States  by  James  Buchanan,  the  Democratic  candidate,  who  received 
174  electoral  votes.  John  C.  Fremont,  the  Republican  candidate, 
received  114  electoral  votes. 
The  two  great  political  parties  into  which  the  people  of  the  United 
States  had,  for  a  considerable  number  of  years,  been  divided,  were  the 
Democratic  and  the  Whig  parties  ;  but  after  the  repeal  by  Congress  of 
the  Missouri  Compromise,  a  party  styled  the  Republican  party,  was 
formed,  composed  chiefly  of  those  citizens  who  had  before  belonged  to 
the  Whig  party.  The  leading  principle  of  this  new  party  was  opposition 
to  the  further  extension  of  slavery  into  free  territory;  yet  it  maintained 
that  Congress  had  no  right  to  interfere  with  slavery  as  it  existed  in  the 
slave  States. 

The  subject  of  slavery  continued  unhappily  to  disturb  the  peace  of 
the  country  during  Mr.  Buchanan's  administration,  as  it  had  done  during 
that  of  Mr.  Pierce  ;  and  his  administration  was  noted  for  the  continuation 
of  the  troubles  in  Kansas,  for  the  raid  of  John  Brown  in  Virginia,  and, 
towards  its  close,  for  the  manoeuvres  and  preparations  for  the  great 
rebellion  which  soon  followed.  Three  of  the  members  of  his  Cabinet, 
Cobb,  Thompson  and  Floyd,  ultimately  took  an  active  and  prominent 
part  in  the  secession  of  the  slave  States,  and  much  was  done  by  them, 
while  in  office,  to  aid  it,  especially  by  Floyd,  the  Secretary  of  War,  by 
sending-  the  United  States  arms  and  munitions  of  war  to  the  Southern 
States. 

400 


STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED   YEARS.  40  [ 

TROUBLES  IN  KANSAS. 

We  have  already  told  of  the  beginning  of  the  struggle  for  the  con- 
trol of  Kansas.  In  June,  1857,  the  delegates  to  another  convention  for 
forming  a  State  Constitution  were  elected,  but  the  free  State  men,  feel- 
ing that  they  had  no  security  for  a  fair  election,  generally  took  no  part 
in  it.  This  convention  met  at  Lecompton  and  formed  a  constitution,  in 
which  slavery  was  established.  The  promulgation  of  this  constitution 
caused  great  excitement.  It  was  strongly  condemned  by  Governor 
Walker,  who  proceeded  immediately  to  Washington  to  remonstrate 
against  its  adoption,  but,  before  his  arrival,  it  had  been  adopted  by  Con- 
gress and  received  the  approval  of  the  President.  Governor  Walker 
soon  after  resigned  his  office,  and  James  W'.  Denver,  of  California,  was 
appointed  in  his  place. 

The  Lecompton  Constitution,  when  submitted  to  the  people  in  1S58, 
was  rejected  by  a  majority  of  upwards  of  10,000  votes.  Soon  after  this 
rejection  Denver  resigned  his  office,  and  Samuel  Medar)',  of  Ohio,  was 
appointed  Governor. 

Delegates  to  another  Constitutional  Convention  were  elected,  who 
met  in  July,  1859,  at  Wyandotte,  and  formed  a  constitution,  in  which 
slavery  was  prohibited.  This  constitution  was  ratified  by  the  people  by 
about  4000  majority.  A.  State  election  was  held  under  it  on  the  6th  of 
December,  1859,  and  Charles  Robinson  was  elected  Governor. 

Kansas,  after  a  long,  calamitous  and  sanguinary  conflict,  in  which 
the  grossest  frauds  were  committed,  and  the  vilest  passions  exhibited, 
was  finally  admitted  by  Congress  into  the  Union  in  January,  1861,  as  a 
free  State. 

JOHN  BROWN  AT  HARPER'S  FERRY. 

A  prominent  leader  ot  the  free  soil  party  in  Kansas  was  John  Brown, 
of  Ossawatomie.  He  took  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  civil  war  in  that 
territory,  and  one  of  his  sons,  who  was  captured  by  the  enemy,  was 
cruelly  tortured  into  insanity.  Brown,  who  was  an  intensely  religious 
man,  thereupon  conceived  the  idea  that  he  was  chosen  by  God  to  lead  a 
campaign  against  the  slave  power  on  its  own  ground.  Accordingly,  on 
October  16,  1859,  he  with  fifteen  white  men,  two  of  them  his  sons,  and 
five  men  of  color,  made  an  invasion  into  the  State  of  Virmnia  with  the 
avowed  object  of  freeing  the  slaves,  took  possession  of  the  United  States 
Arsenal    at    Harper's   Ferry  and  a  considerable  part  of  the  town,  and 


402  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

seized  and  held  some  of  the  citizens  as  hostages.  Four  of  the  inhabitants 
were  killed  in  the  conflict. 

A  great  panic  was  soon  raised  in  the  neighborhood,  and  in  a  great 
part  of  the  State  of  Virginia  ;  and  the  next  day  some  of  the  federal  troops 
and  of  the  Virginia  militia  arrived,  and  1500  armed  men  were  on  the 
ground  to  suppress  the  insurrection. 

Brown  and  his  men,  with  the  hostages,  took  refuge  in  the  armory 
buildings,  which  were  seized  by  the  troops  ;  twelve  of  the  invaders  were 
killed,  Brown  and  four  of  his  men  were  taken  prisoners,  and  two  of  them 
escaped,  but  they  were  afterwards  captured.  Brown  and  the  si.x  other 
prisoners  were  brought  to  trial  and  were  hanged. 

THE  DRED-SCOTT  DECISION. 

One  of  the  most  important  political  incidents  of  the  Buchanan 
administration,  and  one  which  had  an  unspeakably  important  effect  upon 
the  slavery  question,  was  what  is  known  as  the  Dred-Scott  case.  Dred 
Scott  was  a  negro  and  a  slave.  His  master  was  an  army  surgeon,  whose 
home  was  in  the  State  of  Missouri.  This  master  took  Dred  Scott  in 
1834  into  the  free  State  of  Illinois,  and  lived  there  four  years,  keeping 
the  slave  with  him.  From  Illinois  he  went  into  the  Minnesota  territory, 
which  was  not  yet  a  State,  but  in  which  slavery  was  forbidden  by  the  Act 
of  Congress  known  as  the  Missouri  Compromise,  which  we  have  hitherto 
explained.  After  some  residence  in  Minnesota,  master  and  slave  returned 
to  Missouri.  Not  long  after  this  return  Dred  Scott  received  a  flogging, 
such  as  slaves  at  that  time  frequently  received.  Thereupon  he  brought 
action  for  damages  for  what  he  claimed  was  assault  and  battery.  He 
claimed  that  as  slavery  was  illegal  in  Illinois  and  Minnesota  he  could  not 
legally  have  been  a  slave  while  he  was  living  there,  and  that  as  he  had 
become  a  free  man  in  Illinois  and  Minnesota  he  must  have  returned  to 
Missouri  a  free  man. 

This  case  was  begfun  in  a  small  local  court,  and  was  carried,  on 
appeal,  from  one  court  to  another.  In  one  case  judgment  was  rendered 
in  Dred  Scott's  favor.  Finally  the  case  reached  the  Supreme  Court  of 
the  United  States,  and  was  there  carefully  considered.  Before  that  court 
it  was  merely  a  question  of  jurisdiction.  In  1857  the  judgment  of  the 
Supreme  Court  was  finally  given  by  Roger  B.  Taney,  the  venerable  Chief 
Justice.     This  decision,  which  has  become  historic,  was  against  the  claims 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 


403 


of  Dred  Scott.  It  was,  in  brief,  to  the  effect  that  he  was  not  a  citizen 
within  the  meaning  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  ;  that  he  had 
no  standing  in  court,  and  was  not  entitled  to  bring  a  suit  at  law  ;  that  the 
Act  of  Congress  known  as  the  Missouri  Compromise  was  unconstitu- 
tional, and  therefore  null  and  void  ;  that  Dred  Scott  was  not  a  citizen  of 
Missouri,  but  a  mere  chattel,  and  that  slave-owners  could  take  their 
slaves  with  them  into  free  States,  or  wherever  they  pleased,  without 
moving  title  to  them,  just  as  they  could  take  their  horses,  their  dogs  and 
the  money  in  their  pockets.  The  decision  further  stated  that  the  Consti- 
tution of  the  United  States  had  been  framed  by  men  who  acted  upon  the 
theory  that  "the  black  man  had  no  rights  that  the  white  man  was  bound 
to  respect." 

While  this  decision  was  doubtless  given  with  all  possible  sincerity 
and  judicial  honesty,  it  was  evidently  strongly  in  favor  of  the  slave  power 
at  the  South.  Its  practical  effect  would  in  time  have  been  to  abolish  all 
distinctions  of  free  States  and  slave  States,  and  to  make  the  entire  United 
States  a  slave  country.  It  greatly  encouraged  the  slave  party  at  the 
South  to  assume  a  bolder  and  more  defiant  attitude  and  to  revive,  with 
scarcely  the  slightest  attempt  at  concealment,  the  importation  of  negro 
slaves  from  Africa,  which  had  been  forbidden  by  Act  of  Congress  since 
1808  in  accordance  with  the  express  understanding  made  at  the  time  of 
the  adoption  of  the  Constitution.  During  Buchanan's  administration  the 
Government  made  little  effort  to  check  this  illegal  traffic.  At  the  same 
time  the  Dred  Scott  decision  aroused  the  anti-slavery  sentiment  of  the 
North  as  it  had  never  been  aroused  before  in  opposition  to  the  slave 
power. 

LINCOLN  AND  DOUGLAS 

A  local  campaign  in  the  State  of  Illinois  in  1858  now  demands  our 
attention.  Stephen  A.  Douglas,  the  author  of  the  "  Squatter  Sovereignty" 
scheme,  was  in  that  year  a  candidate  for  re  election  to  the  United  States 
Senate  as  the  candidate  of  the  Democratic  party.  The  candidate  of  the 
newly-formed  Republican  party,  in  opposition  to  him,  was  Abraham 
Lincoln.  The  latter,  probably  the  most  noteworthy  figure  in  the  histor)' 
of  the  United  States,  was  of  Virginian  ancestry,  and  was  born  in  Ken- 
tucky on  February  12,  1S09.  His  parents  were  wretchedly  poor  and 
ignorant,  and  belonged  to  the  class  which  is  contemptuously  referred  to 
as  the  "  poor  white  trash."     As  a  boy  Lincoln  had  practically  no  school 


404  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

ing,  but  was  brought  up  to  work  hard.  He  served  as  a  common  laborer 
on  a  flatboat,  then  as  clerk  and  storekeeper  in  a  country  village  in 
Illinois,  then  as  postmaster,  then  as  a  surveyor,  and  finally  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  and  began  practice  as  a  lawyer.  From  this  record  it  will  be 
inferred  that  he  succeeded  in  educating  himself.  He  did  so,  studying 
such  books  as  he  could  get  at  night  by  the  light  of  a  log  fire.  In  this 
way  he  succeeded  in  gaining  an  excellent  English  education,  and  made 
himself  one  of  the  most  perfect  masters  of  English  speech  and  English 
literary  and  oratorical  style  the  world  has  ever  known.  He  had  a  natural 
grift  of  droll  and  irresistible  humor  and  a  rare  vein  of  tender-hearted 
human  sympathy.  The  shrewdness  of  political  tactics  and  leadership 
seemed  to  come  to  him  as  a  natural  gift.  In  both  legal  and  political 
debate  he  has  never  had  a  superior  in  American  history.  He  was, 
withal,  conspicuously  unselfish  and  absolutely  honest,  so  that  he  com- 
manded the  affection  and  confidence  of  the  people  in  a  rare  degree. 

At  the  time  of  the  campaign  of  1858  he  had  served  in  the  Illinois 
Legislature  for  several  terms,  and  also  for  a  short  time  in  Cong^ress.  In 
1858  he  challenged  Douglas  to  the  then  common  political  practice  of  a 
joint  debate.  The  two  men  travelled  over  the  State,  making  speeches 
and  discussing  the  political  issues  of  the  day  together,  from  the  same 
platform  and  before  the  same  audience.  It  was  the  general  verdict  of  the 
public  that  Lincoln  won  the  honors  of  the  debate.  He  succeeded  in  forc- 
ing Douglas  to  commit  himself  with  positive  declarations  of  opinion  upon 
the  Dred-Scott  case  and  other  phases  of  the  conflict  between  the  slave 
power  and  the  free  States.  As  Douglas  was  a  candidate  for  Senator  in 
the  free  State  of  Illinois,  and,  as  he  was,  moreover,  at  heart  opposed  to 
slavery,  his  declarations  on  these  subjects  were  in  favor  of  freedom  and 
against  the  extension  of  slavery.  The  result  of  the  campaign  was  that 
Douglas  was  re-elected  to  the  United  States  Senate,  and  was  made  more 
popular  than  ever  with  that  portion  of  the  Democratic  party  in  the  North 
which  was  opposed  to  the  extension  of  the  slave  power  ;  that  Douglas 
was  at  the  same  time  made  so  offensive  to  the  slaveholders  of  the  South 
as  to  render  it  impossible  for  them  to  support  him  as  a  candidate  for  the 
Presidency  of  the  United  States,  which  he  expected  to  be,  and  as  a  mat- 
ter of  fact  was,  two  years  later ;  and  finally,  that  Abraham  Lincoln  was 
brought  into  national  prominence  and  made  the  logical  candidate  of  the 
Republican  party  for  the  Presidency  in  i860. 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 


405 


LINCOLN   ELECTED   PRESIDENT. 

In  i860  the  sixteenth  President  of  the  United  States  was  elected. 
Previous  to  his  election  the  country  was  convulsed  by  fierce  party  conten- 
tions. The  two  principal  parties  into  which  the  country  was  divided 
were  the  Democratic  and  the  Republican,  and  slavery  was  the  great  cause 
of  strife. 

The  Democratic  party,  which  was  strongly  supported  in  the  slave 
States,  and  which  had  long  had  the  ascendancy  in  the  country,  being  un- 
able to  unite  on  a  candidate  for  the  Presidency,  was  divided  into  two  sec- 
tions. The  Southern  section,  which  was  the  most  strenuous  to  promote 
the  interests  of  slavery,  took  John  C.  Breckenridge  for  its  candidate  ;  the 
other  section  took  Stephen  A.  Douglas  ;  the  candidate  of  the  Republican 
party  was  Abraham  Lincoln,  and  the  candidate  of  a  fourth  party,  styled 
the  Union  party,  was  John  Bell. 

The  election,  which  was  conducted  without  violence,  took  place  on 
the  6th  of  November,  i860,  and  resulted  in  the  choice  of  Abraham 
Lincoln,  who  received  180  electoral  votes;  Breckenridge  had  72  ;  Bell, 
39,  and  Douglas  12. 

sece:ssion 

Lincoln  had  made  it  perfectly  plain  during  the  campaign  which  re- 
sulted in  his  election  that  he  would  not  interfere  with  slavery  in  the 
Southern  States,  but  would  merely  resist  its  extension  into  the  free  States 
and  Territories.  Nevertheless  the  leaders  of  the  slavery  party  affected 
to  regard  his  election  as  a  direct  menace  to  the  institution  of  slaverj'  and 
to  the  autonomy  of  the  Southern  States.  As  soon,  therefore,  as  the  re- 
sult of  the  election  was  known,  the  Senators  from  South  Carolina  and  all 
Federal  officeholders  from  that  State  resigned  their  places.  In  the  follow- 
ing month,  December,  1 860,  a  convention  was  held  in  -South  Carolina  which 
adopted  resolutions  declaring  and  announcing  the  secession  of  that  State 
from  the  Union.  This  example  was  promptly  followed  by  most  of  the 
other  slave  States,  and  long  before  the  end  of  Buchanan's  administration, 
indeed  before  the  end  of  January,  1861,  the  States  of  Georgia,  Alabama, 
Florida,  Mississippi,  Louisiana  and  Texas  had  also  adopted  ordinances 
of  secession.  In  February,  1 861,  delegates  from  these  States  met  at 
Montgomery,  Ala.,  and  organized  a  government  which  they  called  that  of 
the  Confederate  States  of  America.  They  adopted  a  constitution,  of 
which  the  bulk  was  simply  a  copy  of  the  constitution  of  the  United  States, 


4o6  STOKY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

but  introduced  into  it  articles  recognizing  and  legalizing  slavery  and  for- 
bidding the  enactment  of  a  protective  tariff.  They  elected  Jefferson 
Davis,  who  had  been  a  United  States  Senator  from  Mississippi,  President 
of  the  Confederate  States,  and  Alexander  Hamilton  Stephens,  of 
Georgia,  Vice-President  Some  of  the  first  acts  of  this  new  government 
was  to  seize  the  United  States  forts  and  arsenals  throughout  the  South 
wherever  they  could.  Some  of  these  were  voluntarily  surrendered  to 
them.  Fort  Sumter,  in  the  harbor  of  Charleston,  S.  C,  and  a  few  others, 
refused  to  surrender  or  to  recognize  the  authority  of  the  new  govern- 
ment. Thereupon  the  civil  and  military  authorities  of  South  Carolina 
began  preparations  for  the  forcible  capture  or  reduction  of  Port  Sumter. 

ATTITUDE  OF  THE  WASHINGTON   GOVERNMENT. 

The  attitude  of  President  Buchanan's  administration  towards  these 
doings  of  the  Southern  States  was  marked  with  weakness  and  hesitancy. 
Mr.  Buchanan  greatly  deplored  the  secession  of  the  States,  but  he  held, 
according  to  his  interpretation  of  the  Constitution,  that  he  had  no  power 
to  coerce  a  sovereign  State,  and  therefore  could  do  nothing  to  prevent 
secession.  Several  members  of  his  Cabinet  openly  sympathized  with  the 
secessionists  and  aided  them  with  gifts  of  arms,  munitions  of  war,  etc., 
belonging  to  the  United  States. 

During  the  winter  Congress  was  busy  discussing  various  plans  of 
compromise.  The  most  conspicuous  was  put  forward  by  John  J.  Critten- 
den, a  Senator  from  Kentucky  and  a  man  of  high  ability  and  lofty  char- 
acter. He  proposed  an  amendment  to  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  by  which  the  Missouri  Compromise  line  was  to  be  prolonged  to 
the  Pacific  Ocean  ;  slavery  was  to  be  prohibited  north  of  that  line,  and 
Cono-ress  was  to  be  expressly  forbidden  to  meddle  with  slavery  south  of 
that  line,  and  the  Federal  Government  was  to  pay  full  market  value  for 
all  fugitive  slaves  rescued  from  Federal  officers  after  arrest.  This  plan, 
known  as  the  Crittenden  Compromise,  gained  wide  popularity  at  the 
North,  but  ultimately  failed  of  adoption. 

The  State  of  Virginia  was  at  this  time  opposed  to  secession  and 
earnesdy  sought  to  avoid  war.  At  the  request  of  its  Government  a 
peace  conference  assembled  at  Washington  in  February,  1861.  The 
chairman  of  this  conference  was  John  Tyler,  e.x-President  of  the  United 
States,  and  delegates  were  present  from  fourteen   free  States  and  from 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  407 

seven  slave  States,  to  wit.  :  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  Tennessee,  Ken- 
tucky, Missouri,  Maryland  and  Delaware.  The  States  which  had  seceded 
were  not  represented.  As  a  result  of  its  mature  deliberations  this  con- 
ference recommended  that  Congress  should  make  various  concessions  to 
the  slaveholders.  All  of  these  recommendations  were  rejected  by  Con- 
gress, and  instead  of  them,  a  constitutional  amendment  was  adopted  by 
Congress,  which  had  been  offered  by  Senator  Douglas,  and  which  guar- 
anteed that  Congress  should  never  interfere  with  slavery  in  the  States. 
This  amendment  was,  however,  never  adopted  by  the  necessary  number 
of  States  by  popular  vote,  but  practically  fell  out  of  sight  and  was  for- 
gotten after  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War. 

nNCIDENTS   OF  THE  ADMINISTRATION. 

During  the  administration  of  James  Buchanan  the  United  States  was 
visited  with  one  of  the  most  disastrous  financial  panics  ever  known  in  its 
history.  This  occurred  in  1857  ^^'^  lasted  for  several  years.  Banks 
suspended  everywhere,  and  thousands  of  business  men  and  firms  were 
driven  into  bankruptcy.  At  the  same  time  the  Treasury'  of  the  United 
States  was  depleted  and  the  credit  of  the  Government  fell  to  so  low  a 
point  that  money  for  public  purposes  was  borrowed  with  great  difficulty, 
and  then  only  by  selling  Government  bonds  at  a  considerable  discount 
below  their  par  value. 

The  Mormon  colony  at  Great  Salt  Lake,  Utah,  was  founded  osten- 
sibly as  a  religious  organization.  As  it  grew  in  strength,  however,  it  as- 
sumed civil  independence,  and  defied  the  authority  of  the  United  States 
Government.  The  result  was  a  serious  rebellion,  which  was  only  quelled 
by  the  United  States  army  after  considerable  bloodshed. 

The  Federal  Union  was  enlarged  during  these  years  by  the  admis- 
sion of  Minnesota  and  Oregon  as  free  States.  After  all  her  troubles, 
including  a  civil  war  in  which  thousands  of  lives  were  lost,  Kansas  also 
was  admitted  to  the  Union  as  a  free  State. 

Buchanan's  administration  ended  with  the  most  gloomy  outlook  the 
Republic  had  known  during  the  century.  The  Government  was  almost 
bankrupt,  business  was  prostrated,  and  the  country  was  upon  the  verge 
of  civil  war. 


CHAPTER  XXXII. 


End   of  British   War  with   Persia — Origin  of  the  Mutiny — The  Greased 

Cartridges — Outbre&k   at   Meerut — Cawnpore  and  Lucknow — Supres- 

sion  of  the  Mutiny — End  of  the  East  India  Company — British  and 

French  in   China — Moving  on   Peking — Fall  of  Peking — The 

Rise  of  Sardinia — Attempt  to  Kill  Napoleon  II — War  with 

Austria  —  Magenta    and    Solferino  —  Peace    of   Villa- 

franca  —  Union   of  Northern   ItsJy  —  Savoy  and 

Nice — Garibaldi  Liberates  Naples  and  Sicily 

—  Defeat    of   the    Papal    Army  —  Victor 

Emanuel  King  of  Italy  —  Interests 

of  Various  Lands. 


THE  British  war  with  Persia,  of  which  we  have  spoken  in  a  former 
chapter,  was  of  brief  duration.  It  ended  in  1857,  just  in  time  to 
give  place  to  another  war  of  great  magnitude  and  of  most  painful 
details.  This  was  the  .Sepoy  mutiny  in  India,  which  grew  out  of 
the  arbitrary  and  unsympathetic  rule  of  Lord  Dalhousie,  the  British 
Governor-General  of  India. 

The  annexation  of  the  Punjaub  was  carried  out  by  Lord  Dalhousie, 
who  as  Governor-General  did  more  to  extend  the  limits  of  British  terri- 
tory than  any  of  his  predecessors  since  the  Marquis  of  Hastings.  He 
was  strongly  of  opinion  that  the  government  of  the  feudatory  princes  was 
so  bad  that  it  was  for  the  true  interests  of  India  that  as  many  of  them  as 
possible  should  be  got  rid  of  and  their  possessions  taken  under  direct 
British  rule.  With  this  object  he  refused  to  fall  in  with  the  prevailing 
native  custom  by  which  childless  rulers  were  allowed  to  adopt  into  their 
family  anyone  whom  they  chose,  and  to  pass  on  to  them  their  full  rights 
of  sovereignty.  In  this  way,  he  declared,  in  1848,  that  the  Mahratta  State 
of  Satara  had  fallen  in  as  a  lapsed  fief  for  want  of  an  heir.  In  1853  the 
much  larger  and  more  important  principality  of  Nagpore  was  annexed 
on  the  same  principle,  and  formed  into  the  Central  Provinces.  Jhansi, 
a  third    Mahratta    State,  was  taken    over  for  the  same  reason  in  1854. 

408 


VICTOR    HUGO 


JOHN  RUSKIN 


1870— FAMOUS  POETRY  AND  PROSE  WRITERS  OF  THE  MNETEFNTH  CENTURY 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 


4ir 


When  Bajee  Rao,  the  Peishwa  who  had  been  stripped  of  his  dominions 
but  not  of  his  title  in  1818,  died  in  1853,  Dalhousie  refused  to  allow  his 
title  to  be  passed  on  to  his  adopted  son  Dhundu  Punt,  and  gave  him  a 
pension  instead.  These  acts  seemed  to  the  Hindoos  to  strike  at  the  roots 
of  all  family  life  and  ancestral  custom.  They  could  not  understand  the 
English  view  by  which  an  adopted  child  is  regarded  as  something  very 
dififerent  from  the  actual  son  of  his  benefactor.  In  their  ideas  the  annex- 
ation of  Nagpore  or  Jhansi  was  simple  robbery. 

Dalhousie  also  succeeded  in  shocking  Mohammedan  feeling  by  his 
seizure  of  Oude  in  1856.  The  last  king  of  that  State  was  an  incur- 
able spendthrift  and  a  reckless  oppressor  of  his  subjects.  Dalhousie, 
after  repeated  warnings,  declared  him  deposed,  and  made  a  new  prov- 
ince out  of  his  wealthy  but  dilapidated  realm.  To  these  enormous 
confiscations  inside  India  he  added  one  external  conquest.  The  King 
of  Burmah  having  molested  the  English  merchants  of  Rangoon  on  many 
occasions,  Dalhousie  declared  war  on  him  in  1852,  and  drove  him  out  of 
Pegu  and  the  lands  at  the  mouth  of  the  Irrawaddy.  They  were  added  to 
Aracan  and  formed  into  the  new  province  of  British  Burmah. 

Dalhousie  was  something  more  than  a  mere  annexer  of  territory. 
He  was  a  great  reformer  and  organizer,  introduced  railways  and  tele- 
graphs into  India,  fostered  the  education  of  the  natives,  and  endeavored 
to  give  them  more  places  in  the  civil  service  than  had  seemed  good  to 
his  predecessors.  Nevertheless  his  actions  must  be  considered  as  hav- 
ing contributed  to  a  very  considerable  degree  towards  precipitating  the 
great  rebellion  which  broke  out  soon  after  his  departure  for  England  in 
1856. 

ORIGIN  OF  THE  MUTINY. 

The  origins  of  this  fearful  convulsion  are  not  hard  to  trace, 
though  the  exact  proportion  which  each  cause  had  in  producing  the 
rising  in  1857  '^  more  difficult  to  ascertain.  The  mutiny  was  mainly 
a  military  conspiracy.  It  was  only  in  Oude  and  a  few  other  districts 
that  the  population  of  the  countryside  took  any  active  part  in  it.  For 
some  years  before  the  outbreak  the  spirit  of  the  native  army  had  been 
steadily  deteriorating.  The  old  notion  of  the  invincibility  of  the  British 
arms  had  been  shaken  by  the  Afghan  disaster  of  1841,  and  by  the  nar- 
row escape  from  defeat  in  the  Sikg  campaign  of  1845-46.  No  tie  of 
natural  loyalty  bound  the  Sepoys  to  the  Government  which  they  served; 

22 


412 


STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 


indeed,  a  very  large  proportion  of  diem  were  born  subjects  of  the  King  of 
Oude,  and  resented  his  deposition.  They  were  kept  true  by  their 
l)ay  and  immunities,  by  their  respect  and  afifection  for  their  officers,  and 
by  their  wholesome  dread  of  the  European  garrison  of  India.  All 
these  motives  had  been  shaken  of  late.  The  Government  had  been 
offending  them  by  sending  them  on  over-sea  expeditions  to  Burmah 
and  China.  Some  of  tlieir  old  privileges,  c.  g.,  extra  pay  for  service  be- 
yond the  Sutlej,  had  been  abolished.  The  tie  of  personal  loyalty  to  their 
hierarchical  superiors  had  been  much  loosened.  The  British  ofificers  no 
longer  spent  their  whole  life  with  their  regiment,  and  were  often  trans- 
ferred from  corps  to  corps,  or  detached  on  civil  employ.  The  compara- 
tive easiness  of  obtainintj  leave  to  England  since  the  overland  route  had 
been  invented,  and  steamships  had  brought  India  within  six  weeks'  voy- 
age of  London,  was  not  without  its  effect.  Moreover,  in  1857  the  pro- 
portion of  British  to  native  troops  in  India  was  abnormally  low.  Many 
of  the  regiments  summoned  to  Europe  for  the  Crimean  war  had  not  been 
replaced,  and  what  white  troops  there  were  had  been  mainly  concentrated 
in  the  newly-annexed  Punjaub.  Between  the  Sutlej  and  Calcutta  there 
were  at  the  moment  of  the  outbreak  only  six  British  battalions. 

A  great  mercenary  army  which  has  begun  to  despise  its  masters, 
and  thinks  it  has  a  grievance  against  them,  is  ripe  for  revolt.  The 
Sepoys  had  been  so  much  pampered  and  petted  by  the  Government 
that  they  thought  that  it  could  not  do  without  them.  It  only  needed 
a  cause  and  a  cry  to  spur  them  into  open  rebellion. 

THE  GREASED  CARTRIDGES. 

The  cause  was  supplied  by  political  intriguers,  largely  drawn  from 
the  ranks  of  those  who  had  suffered  by  Dalhousie's  annexations.  The 
dependents  of  the  ex-King  of  Oude  were  a  centre  of  discontent  among 
the  Mohammedans  and  those  of  the  ex-Peishwa  among  the  Mahrattas. 
The  secret  programme  laid  before  the  Sepoys  was  the  restoration  of  the 
Mogul  Emperor,  who  still  lived  as  a  pensioner  at  Delhi,  as  the  national 
sovereign  of  India,  and  the  restoration  under  his  suzerainty  of  all  the 
lately  annexed  States.  This  scheme  would  appeal  more  to  Mohammedans 
than  Hindoos,  but  the  revival  of  the  Peishwaship  would  not  be  without 
its  effect  among  the  latter.  The  actual  cry  which  set  the  smouldering 
elements  of  rebellion  ablaze  was  a  foolish  rumor  to  the  effect  that  the 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  413 

Government  was  about  to  attempt  to  force  Christianity'  on  its  subjects. 
This  was  to  be  done,  so  it  was  averred,  by  defiling  the  soldiers.  The 
grease  of  pigs  and  of  cattle  was  to  be  smeared  on  the  cartridges  which 
were  being  issued  to  the  troops  for  the  new  rifle,  with  which  they  were 
being  re-armed.  Hindoos  would  lose  their  caste  by  touching  the  lard  of 
the  sacred  cow,  and  Mohammedans  be  polluted  by  handling  the  fat  of  the 
swine.  All  being  contaminated,  the  "  Sircar  "  would  invite  them  to  be- 
come Christians  !  This  incredibly  silly  tale  found  implicit  credence  in 
many  quarters,  and  seems  to  have  provoked  the  outbreak  of  the  rebel- 
lion before  its  organizers  were  quite  ready.  It  would  seem  that  a  general 
rising  had  been  planned  for  the  month  of  May,  but  even  before  that  date 
isolated  risings  occurred.  The  first  at  Barrackpur,  near  Calcutta,  was 
easily  suppressed,  and  the  two  regiments  which  took  part  in  it  were  dis- 
banded. The  Government  had  no  idea  that  they  were  dealing  with  a 
mere  corner  of  a  great  conspiracy. 

OUTBREAK  AT  MEERUT. 

The  serious  trouble  began  with  the  revolt  of  the  brigade  at  Meerut, 
a  great  cantonment  near  Delhi,  on  May  7,  1857.  The  mutineers,  after 
shooting  many  of  their  officers,  marched  on  the  ancient  capital,  induced 
the  troops  there  to  aid  them,  and  murdered  many  scores  of  Europeans. 
They  then  went  to  Bahadur  Shah,  the  aged  Mogul  Prince,  and  saluted 
him  as  their  monarch.  He  was  placed  on  the  throne  of  his  ancestors, 
and  hailed  as  Emperor  of  India.  The  news  of  the  seizure  of  Delhi  by 
the  rebels  flew  round  northern  Hindostan  in  a  moment,  and  was  followed 
by  mutinies  in  almost  every  cantonment  v.'here  a  native  regiment  lay.  In 
most  cases  their  rising  was  accompanie'd  by  the  murder  of  their  officers 
under  circumstances  of  gross  treachery  and  cruelty.  In  a  few  weeks  the 
whole  of  Oude,  with  Rohilcund  and  the  greater  part  of  the  North-west 
Provinces,  was  in  the  possession  of  the  insurgents.  The  rising  spread 
into  Bahar  at  one  end  and  into  the  Central  Provinces  at  the  other.  The 
main  centres  of  revolt  were  Lucknow,  where  a  young  relative  of  the  old 
ruler  of  Oude  was  proclaimed  King,  and  Cawnpore,  which  was  seized  by 
the  would-be  Peishwa  Dhundu  Punt,  the  adopted  son  of  Bajee  Rao — a 
miscreant  better  known  by  the  name  of  the  Nana  Sahib.  The  English 
who  escaped  massacre  sought  refuge  in  the  few  stations,  such  as  Agra 
and  Allahabad,  where  there  was  a  European  regiment  in  possession. 


414 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 


The  blow  was  so  sudden  and  unexpected  that  lor  a  moment  the 
Government  was  paralyzed  ;  the  Punjaub,  where  lay  the  greater  part  of 
the  white  troops,  was  separated  from  Calcutta  by  400  miles  of  territory 
which  had  passed  to  the  rebels.  It  was  from  Sir  John  Lawrence  in  the- 
Punjaub  that  the  first  signs  of  movement  came.  After  disarming  the 
Sepoys  in  his  district  he  sent  a  small  force  of  5000  British  troops  against 
Delhi.  They  forced  their  way  to  its  gates,  and  there  established  them- 
selves, in  order  to  attack  a  city  garrisoned  by  twice  their  own  number  of 
regular  troops.  So  began  a  siege  which  lasted  from  June  8th  to  Septem- 
ber 20th.  Lawrence  pushed  up  to  aid  the  besiegers  all  the  white  men 
he  could  spare,  and  a  quantity  of  new  Sikh  levies,  raised  mainly  from  the 
old  enemies  of  1848.  They  behaved  admirably,  and  never  for  a  moment 
showed  any  signs  of  disloyalty.  On  September  14th  General  Nicholson 
stormed  the  city,  and  after  six  days  of  desperate  street-fighting  the  rebel 
army  broke  up,  and  the  Emperor  and  all  his  family  were  taken  prisoners. 
The  aged  Bahadur  Shah  himself  was  spared,  but  his  sons  and  grandson 
were  shot  without  a  trial  by  Major  Hodson,  the  fierce  cavalry  leader  who 
had  followed  up  and  seized  them. 

CAWNPORE  AND  LUCKNOW. 

Meanwhile  two  sieges  further  to  the  south  had  been  engrossing  the 
rebels  of  Oude.  At  Cawnpore  General  Wheeler,  with  400  fighting  men 
and  a  much  larger  number  of  women  and  children,  was  beleaguered  by 
the  Nana  Sahib  in  some  flimsy  entrenchments.  Worn  out  by  heat  and 
starvation,  the  garrison  yielded  on  terms,  when  they  were  promised  a 
free  passage  by  river  to  Calcutta.  But  the  treacherous  Prince  fell  upon 
them  as  they  were  getting  into  their  boats,  and  slew  all  the  men  in  cold 
blood  (June  27th).  Two  or  three  hundred  women  and  children  were 
saved  alive  for  a  time,  but  when  he  heard  that  an  English  force  was 
drawing  near  Cawnpore,  the  infamous  Mahratta  had  the  whole  of  his 
unfortunate  captives  hacked  to  pieces  and  cast  into  a  well  (July  15th). 
A  siege  with  a  very  different  result  was  proceeding  at  Lucknow,  where 
Sir  Henry  Lawrence,  with  a  single  British  battalion  and  a  great  mass  of 
English  fugitives  was  being  attacked  by  the  main  body  of  the  Oude 
rebels.  Lawrence  was  shot  early  in  the  siege,  but  his  companions 
defended  the  extemporized  fortifications  of  the  Residency  for  three 
months  against  some  40,000  rebels,  till  relief  at  last  came. 


o 


IT. 

> 


w 

H 
Z 

o 
> 

•D 

o 

r 
tt 
o 

2 

> 

T 
H 
tt 

?3 


> 

H 

H 

r 

C 

v. 
w 

D 
> 

•z 


< 


< 
•75 

D 

oi 

6 

z 

< 

u. 

( 

< 

w 
a: 
f- 
w 
a: 


o 

2 

o 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 


417 


It  was  brought  by  Sir  Henry  Havelock,  who  had  arrived  at  Cal 
cutta  with  the  troops  returnin_g  from  the  Persian  war,  and  was  promptly 
sent  up  country  with  a  mere  handful  of  men  to  endeavor  to  save  Cawn- 
pore  and  Lucknow.  He  arrived  too  late  to  help  Wheeler's  unhappy 
garrison,  but  on  September  25th  cut  his  way  through  to  Lucknow,  and 
there  established  himself  in  the  midst  of  the  rebels,  whom  he  was  not 
strong  enough  to  drive  away.  The  gallant  defenders  of  the  Residency 
were  not  finally  relieved  till  November,  when  Sir  Colin  Campbell,  who 
had  been  sent  out  from  England  with  reinforcements,  came  up  and 
escorted  them  away  from  their  stronghold. 

SUPPRESSION  OF  THE  MUTINY. 

By  this  time  Delhi  had  fallen,  and  England  was  pouring  troops  by 
tens  of  thousands  into  Calcutta  and  Bombay.  The  rest  of  the  war  con- 
sisted in  the  gradual  hemming  in  and  chunting  down  of  the  rebels  by  Sir 
Colin  Campbell's  army.  In  December  he  defeated,  outside  Cawnpore, 
the  troops  of  Scindia,  who,  in  spite  of  their  master's  orders,  had  taken 
arms  and  joined  the  Oude  insurgents.  In  February,  1858,  he  marched 
for  the  second  time  on  Lucknow,  and  stormed  palace  after  palace,  till, 
after  three  weeks  of  hard  fighting,  the  insurgents  abandoned  the  place 
and  fled  into  Rohilcund  (March  21st).  There  they  were  beaten  again  at 
the  battle  of  Bareilly  (May  7th),  and  finally  dispersed  and  fled  to  their 
homes.  To  the  great  grief  of  his  pursuers,  the  infamous  Nana  Sahib 
escaped  the  sword  and  the  rope,  and  got  off  into  the  jungles  of  Nepaul, 
where  he  is  believed  to  have  died  of  malaria  a  few  weeks  later.  The 
only  corner  where  the  war  now  lingered  was  around  the  Mahratta  towns 
of  Gwalior  and  Jhansi,  where  the  rebellion  was  headed  by  the  Ranee  of 
the  latter  place,  a  cruel  Princess,  who  had  massacred  a  number  of  English 
prisoners  to  avenge  the  annexation  of  her  late  husband's  dominions  in 
1854.  She  fell  in  battle,  armed  and  fighting  like  a  man,  under  the  walls 
of  Gwalior  (June  16,  1858).  This  was  the  last  general  engagement  in 
the  war,  but  for  many  months  more  movable  columns  were  still  hundne 
down  the  last  scattered  bands  of  insurgents  in  Rohilcund  and  the  Central 
Provinces. 

END  OF  THE  EAST   INDIA  COMPANY. 

One  of  the  things  which  had  buoyed  up  the  Sepoys  in  their  rising 
was  a  prophecy  that  the  raj  of  the  East  India  Company  was  destined  to 


4i8 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 


last  only  a  hundred  years,  counting  onward  from  Plassey  and  1757.  The 
forecast  was  actually  fulfilled,  though  in  a  different  sense  from  what  the 
rebels  had  expected,  for  the  company  was  abolished  by  Act  of  Parliament 
in  1858,  and  its  administration  taken  over  by  the  crown.  Since  1833, 
when  its  constitution  had  been  varied  at  once  of  the  periodical  renewals 
of  its  charter,  it  had  been  forced  to  give  up  its  trading  monopoly  and  its 
attempts  to  restrict  the  settlement  of  Europeans  in  India.  In  1853  its 
distribution  of  patronage  had  been  curtailed,  and  its  civil  service  thrown 
open  to  competition.  At  the  time  of  its  dissolution,  therefore,  it  had 
ceased  to  be  a  mainly  mercantile  concern,  and  was  almost  wholly 
occupied  in  administration.  There  was  no  reason  why  such  work  should 
not  be  under  the  immediate  control  of  the  Crown,  and  in  1858  the  whole 
machinery  of  government  was  taken  over  and  placed  under  a  "Secretary 
of  State  for  India"  and  the  Governor-General,  whose  name  was  now 
changed  to  that  of  Viceroy.  The  European  troops  of  the  old  company's 
army  became  the  loist  to  109th  regiment  of  the  British  establishment, 
and  a  new  native  army  was  organized  to  replace  that  which  had  ended  so 
disgracefully  in  the  mutiny. 

BRITISH  AND   FRENCH   IN   CHINA. 

The  second  British  war  with  China  led  to  the  joint  action  of  the 
British  and  French,  already  mentioned  in  a  former  chapter.  The  allied 
expedition  bombarded  and  captured  the  great  city  of  Canton,  and  com- 
pelled China  to  make  a  treaty  with  the  Powers.  The  Chinese  Govern- 
ment failed,  however,  to  keep  this  treaty,  and  cast  into  prison,  tortured 
and  menaced  with  death  the  British  envoys  who  were  sent  thither  in  ac- 
cordance with  its  terms.  Forthwith  a  joint  expedition  to  Peking  was 
undertaken  for  the  rescue  of  the  envoys  and  the  punishment  of  the 
Chinese  Government  for  its  bad  faith.  This  expedition  numbered  among 
its  officers  Captain  Charles  Gordon,  of  the  British  army,  a  young  man 
who  had  served  with  distinction  in  the  Crimea,  and  who  was  destined  to 
become  one  of  the  most  famous  soldiers  of  the  century.  We  may  tell 
the  story  of  this  war  in  the  words  of  his  dairy,  as  follows  : 

"The  landing  of  troops  at  Pehtang  commenced  August  i,  when 
General  Michel's  Division  (the  ist)  was  landed,  the  forts  found  deserted 
and  occupied,  and  the  soldiers  on  the  following  day  quartered  in  the 
village. 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  419 

August  9. — General  Napier  and  Division  (the  2d)  landed. 

August  12. — An  advance  was  made  on  the  fortified  village  of  Sinho, 
which  was  captured  with  the  loss  of  two  Sikhs  and  a  few  trifling  casual- 
ties. The  troops  encamped  in  the  plain  within  the  enemy's  outworks  and 
rested  the  whole  of  the  next  day. 

August  14. — The  ist  Division  advanced  and  drove  the  enemy  from 
their  position  in  the  village  of  Tangkoo,  and  then  retired  to  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Sinho,  while  the  2d  Division  was  quartered  in  the  village. 
Active  preparations  were  then  made  for  the  capture  of  the  North  Fort, 
and  the  engineers  of  the  ist  Division  were  enofaofed  in  buildinof  a  bridge 
at  Sinho,  in  order  to  cross  the  river  to  attack  the  Southern  Forts  in  case 
the  assault  on  the  North  Fort  failed. 

August  21. — At  daylight  the  assault  commenced  on  the  North  Fort. 
The  firing  ceased  at  a  little  after  8.  The  enemy  were  given  till  2  to 
surrender  the  remaining  forts.  At  that  hour  the  Buffs  and  8th  Punjaubis 
marched  into  the  2d  North  Fort  and  took  it  without  firing  a  shot  ;  its 
garrison  of  upwards  of  2000  men  were  set  free.  In  about  an  hour  after- 
wards the  South  forts  were  also  yielded.  We  lost  201  killed  and 
wounded,  the  loss  of  the  French  were  [sic]  about  130,  and  that  of  the 
Chinese  enormous,  not  less  than   2000. 

August  29. — The  ist  Division  crossed  the  floating  bridge  and  started 
on  the  march  to  Tien-tsin  along  the  right  bank  of  the  river.  The  Cavalry 
Brirade  marched  along  the  left. 

August  31. — The  2d  Divdsion  left  their  quarters  at  Tangkoo  and  en- 
camped near  Sinho  close  to  the  floating  bridge.  Next  morning  they 
crossed  and  encamped  on  the  side  opposite. 

September  3. — The  division  advanced  and  halted  at  the  village  of 
Kihkoo,  some  eight  miles  on  the  road  to  Tien-tsin. 

September  4. — Marched  to  Pehtangkow,  1 1  miles  further  on. 

September  5. — Arrived  at  Tien-tsin  and  encamped  on  the  large  plain 
near  the  temple  outside  of  the  city  walls. 

i 
MOVING  ON  PEKING. 

"  September  7. — 3000  men,  under  General  Michel,  pushed  on  for 
Pookow,  the  first  halting  place  on  the  march  to  Peking.  The  convention 
was  to  be  signed  at  Tungchow,  and  the  troops  were  to  form  Lord 
Elgin's  escort  to  Peking. 


420 


STORY    OF    UNE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 


September  8. — Marched  to  Yangtsun.  where  the  army  had  to  halt 
two  days  on  account  of  the  rain.  The  French,  who  were  following,  halted 
at  Pookow. 

September  1 1. — Marched  to  Nan-tsai-tsun. 

September  12. — To  Hoseewoo. 

September  17. — The  31st  left  to  garrison  Hoseewoo.  The  rest 
marched  on  and  encamped  at  Ma-tow. 

September  18. — March  commenced  and  continued  for  six  miles 
when  Hoppo  Hang  was  found  waiting  in  his  chair  on  the  road  to  point 
out  the  encamping  ground.  A  large  Tartar  army  in  front — evident 
signs  of  treachery.  Colonel  Walker  and  Commissary  Thompson  have 
to  ride  for  their  lives  under  fire  of  native  musketry.  The  army  finds 
itself  nearly  surrounded  by  guns  in  ambush,  which  open  fire.  A  grand 
fight  commences,  which  ends  in  the  perfect  defeat  and  rout  of  the  Tar- 
tars. The  enemy  are  driven  beyond  the  village  of  Chang-chia-wan, 
which  is  given  up  to  loot,  and  the  houses  for  quartering  the  troops. 

September  21. — An  advance  on  the  numerous  encampments  of  the 
enemy  east  of  Tungchow  on  the  banks  of  the  Yun-leang  Canal.  The 
camps  are  burned  and  the  enemy  again  completely  routed  with  much  loss 
of  life.  One  dragoon  of  ours  is  killed  and  one  Sikh,  with  a  few  wounded. 
The  toll  bridg-e,  the  floating-  bridge  and  the  stone  bridge  all  fall  into  our 
hands.  At  the  last  place  the  French  had  pretty  close  quarters  with  the 
Tartars  and  made  great  havoc  among  them.  The  army  encamped  on 
the  south  side  of  the    canal. 

October  i. — A  village  on  the  road  to  Peking  is  taken  for  a  depot. 
The  suburbs  of  Tungchow  and  the  north  gate  are  occupied  by  the 
marines. 

October  3. — The  army  crosses  the  canal  and  takes  up  position  near 
the  depot,  two  miles  towards  Peking. 

October  4. — Advanced,  but  halted  early  near  some  brick-kilns  in 
sight  of  Peking,  where  the  army  encamped  without  tents  or  baggage. 

FALL  OF  PEKING. 

'•October  5. — Pushed  on  to  the  Tartar  camp  at  the  An-ting  Gate  on 
the  north  side  of  the  city,  intending  to  rendezvous  at  the  Summer  Palace 
in  the  evening.  The  British  general,  however,  changed  his  mind  and 
halted  at  the  Tihshing  Gate  after  the  Tartars  were  driven  away,  but  the 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  42  1 

French  pushed  on  and  got  possession  of  the  chief  gate  of  the  Summer 
Palace,  which  was  defended  by  some  eunuchs. 

October  6. — The  French  looted  the  Palace. 

October  7. — The  English  allowed  to  loot. 

October  8. — Loot  recalled,  sold,  and  the  produce  apportioned. 

October  18. — The  1st  division,  under  General  Michel,  sent  out  to 
burn  all  the  Imperial  buildings  in  and  near  the  Summer  Palace. 

October  20. — The  An-ting  Gate  delivered  up  to  us  and  occupied 
conjointly  by  the  French  and  English. 

October  24. — Grand  entrance  into  the  city  with  Lord  Elgin  to  ratify 
the  treaty.  The  ceremony  took  place  at  the  Hall  of  Ceremonies,  and  the 
convention  was  signed  by  Prince  Kung,  the  Emperor's  brother. 

October  25. — French  treaty  signed.  The  English  Ambassador  took 
up  his  residence  in  Peking,  guarded  by  the  Royals.  The  French 
Ambassador  came  in  on  the  following  day. 

November  i. — The  French  army  marched  this  morning  for  Tien- 
tsin, leaving  one  regiment  as  guard  of  honor  to  Baron  Gros. 

November  6. — Treaty  proclaimed  throughout  Peking  and  placarded 
on  all  conspicuous  places. 

November  7. — Half  the  troops  under  General  Napier  returned  to 
Tien-tsin. 

November  9. — The  rest  of  the  army  leaves  Peking,  as  also  the 
Embassy,  leaving  Interpreter  Adkins  to  pass  the  winter  in  the  city  and 
prepare  an  establishment  for  Mr.  Bruce,  who  will  return  by  next  spring. 
Mr.  Bruce  was  yesterday  introduced  to  Prince  Kung. 

November  12. — Treaty  published  in  '  Peking  Gazette.'  " 

THE  RISE  OF  SARDINIA. 

Meantime  another  great  power  was  coming  into  existence  in  Europe. 
Sardinia  had  sent  troops  to  the  Crimea  as  an  ally  of  England  and  France. 
These  did  not  play  a  great  part  in  the  war,  but  Sardinia  was  thus 
entitled  to  a  place  in  the  Congress  of  Paris  at  the  close  of  the  war,  and 
there  her  great  Minister,  Count  Cavour,  appeared  on  an  equal  footing 
with  the  plenipotentiaries  of  the  great  powers,  and  adroitly  seized  the  op- 
portunity to  represent  the  evils  which  Italy  suffered  from  foreign  occupa- 
tion. From  this  time  Sardinia  was  practically  recognized  by  all  Italians  as 
the  representative  and  leader  of  the  national  cause.     A  subscription  was 


42  2  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

raised  in  the  chief  towns  of  the  peninsula  to  assist  in  the  fortification  of 
Alessandria.  Austria  was  bitterly  exasperated,  and  the  Austrian  Minister 
was  recalled  from  Turin.  It  was  evident  that  the  struggle  could  not  be 
long  delayed.  Sardinia  could  not  hope  to  contend  single-handed  with 
Austria,  and  relied  for  assistance  upon  the  sympathies  of  Napoleon  III. 

ATTEMPT  TO  KILL  NAPOLEON. 

So  far  no  tangible  results  had  been  obtained  from  the  French 
alliance,  and  at  this  crisis  an  event  occurred  which  almost  broke  it  off 
altogether.  On  January  14,  1858,  Orsini,  a  member  of  the  secret  society 
of  the  Carbonari,  attempted  to  assassinate  the  French  Emperor  by  throw- 
ing bombs  under  his  carriage  as  he  was  going  to  the  opera.  The 
Emperor  himself  escaped  unhurt,  but  nearly  one  hundred  and  fifty  of  the 
bystanders  were  either  killed  or  wounded  by  the  explosion.  A  very 
stringent  "law  of  public  safety"  was  adopted  in  France,  which  placed  the 
persons  and  property  of  all  suspected  persons  at  the  mercy  of  the 
Government.  But  the  most  important  result  of  the  attentat  was  the 
sudden  change  of  relations  with  England  and  Piedmont.  Both  countries 
were  denounced  as  harboring  and  protecting  assassins.  With  England 
the  quarrel  became  a  serious  one.  The  "  Moniteur  "  published  addresses 
from  the  French  colonels  to  the  Emperor,  which  contained  the  most 
offensive  references  to  England,  and  excited  a  storm  of  indignation  in 
that  country ;  the  volunteer  force  was  organized,  Palmerston's  Ministry 
had  to  resign,  and  the  government  of  Lord  Derby  showed  a  manifest 
inclination  to  support  Austria  against  French  designs  in  Italy. 

The  relations  between  France  and  Italy  were  naturally  affected  by 
the  attentat.  Orsini  was  an  Italian  and  belonged  to  an  Italian  society. 
The  reactionary  and  clerical  parties  in  France  tried  to  utilize  the  occasion 
to  detach  Napoleon  III  from  his  connection  with  Italy.  Walewski,  the 
French  foreign  Minister,  called  upon  the  Government  of  Turin  to  intro- 
duce modifications  into  the  laws  in  order  to  protect  foreign  rulers  against 
the  plots  of  assassins,  and  to  satisfy  public  opinion  in  France.  But  Victor 
Emanuel  refused  to  alter  the  constitution  at  the  dictation  of  a  foreign 
power.  The  only  concession  he  would  make  was  the  passing  of  a  law 
prohibiting  the  publication  in  Sardinia  of  articles  which  tended  to  provoke 
rebellion  against  friendly  governments.  In  the  end  the  act  of  Orsini  rather 
helped  than  thwarted  the  aspirations   of  Italy.     The  motive  for  the  plot 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  423 

was  that  Napoleon  had  broken  his  solemn  pledges  to  the  Italian  patriots. 
He  could  not  disarm  the  assassin  more  effectually  than  by  giving  some 
signal  proof  that  he  was  still  devoted  to  the  cause  which  he  had  adopted 
in  his  youth.  In  July  he  had  an  interview  at  Plombieres  with  Cavour,  at 
which  it  was  secretly  arranged  that  France  would  support  Sardinia  in 
case  of  a  war  with  Austria.  This  was  followed  by  the  conclusion  of  a 
secret  treaty,  which  confirmed  the  arrangement  of  Plombieres,  and 
agreed  that  Lombardy  and  Venetia  should  be  annexed  to  Sardinia  to 
form  a  Kingdom  of  Northern  Italy.  In  return  for  these  concessions, 
Victor  Emanuel  pledged  himself  to  cede  Savoy  and  Nice  to  France. 

WAR  WITH  AUSTRIA. 

The  neutral  powers  did  all  they  could  to  avert  the  approaching  war, 
and  proposed  that  the  grievances  of  Italy  should  be  submitted  to  a  Con- 
gress. Cavour  had  to  exert  all  his  diplomatic  abilities  to  prevent  a  com- 
promise, and  at  the  same  time  to  disguise  any  apparent  desire  for  war. 
The  assistance  of  France  could  not  be  looked  for  unless  Austria  could  be 
represented  as  the  aggressor.  Fortunately  the  Government  at  Vienna 
stepped  in  to  assist  its  enemies.  Austria  refused  to  allow  that  Sardinia 
should  be  represented  at  a  Congress  to  settle  the  affairs  of  Italy,  and 
finally  sent  an  ultimatum  to  Turin  demanding  disarmament  within  three 
days  under  penalty  of  immediate  war.  This  was  exactly  what  Cavour 
was  waiting  for.  He  refused  the  demand,  and  the  Austrian  army, 
200,000  strong,  at  once  crossed  the  Ticino  (May  27th)  and  occupied  No- 
vara  and  Vercelli.  Had  they  marched  straight  upon  Turin  they  could 
have  seized  the  city  long  before  the  arrival  of  aid  from  France.  But  the 
Austrian  commanders  showed  signal  incompetence  throughout  the  cam- 
paign, and  the  opportunity  was  lost.  Napoleon  III  lost  no  time  in  fulfill- 
ing his  obligation  to  his  ally,  and  assumed  the  command  of  the  French 
army  in  person.  On  May  13th  he  landed  at  Genoa  and  was  there  joined 
by  Victor  Emanuel.  The  Sardinian  troops  were  to  act  as  the  auxil- 
iaries of  the  French,  and  a  body  of  volunteers,  the  famous  "hunters  of 
the  Alps,"  was  organized  under  the  command  of  Garibaldi  to  harass  the 
Austrians  in  the  broken  country  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps.  The  campaign 
was  short  and  decisive.  No  conspicuous  generalship  was  shown  on 
either  side,  but  the  superior  fighting  power  of  the  French  gave  them  the 
victory. 


424  STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED   YEARS. 

MAGGNTA   AND    SOLFERINO. 

The  battle  of  Magenta  (June  4th),  at  which  MacMahon  won  the 
marshal's  baton,  gave  Milan  to  the  allies,  and  forced  the  Austrians  to  re- 
tire upon  the  Quadrilateral.  Francis  Joseph  now  assumed  the  command 
at  Verona,  and  at  Solferino  (June  24th)  the  three  sovereigns  all  appeared 
upon  the  field.  It  was  a  soldiers  battle,  and  after  ten  hours'  obstinate 
fighting,  in  which  both  sides  suffered  enormous  losses,  the  Austrians 
were  again  completely  defeated. 

The  rapid  success  of  the  allies  had  roused  the  utmost  enthusiasm 
in  Italy.  Leopold  II  of  Tuscany  fled  to  the  Austrian  camp,  and  a  pro- 
visional government  was  erected  in  Florence.  Parma,  Modena  and 
Bologna  were  deserted  by  their  rulers.  From  all  these  States  envoys 
appeared  to  offer  the  sovereignty  to  Victor  Emanuel.  The  question  of 
annexation  was  deferred  until  after  the  conclusion  of  peace,  but  in  the 
meanwhile  the  King  sent  commissioners  to  undertake  a  provisional 
regency  in  his  name. 

PEACE   OF  VILLAFRANCA. 

At  this  moment,  when  the  freedom  of  northern  and  central  Italy 
seemed  assured,  and  the  allies  were  preparing  for  the  conquest  of 
Venetia,  the  news  fell  like  a  thunderbolt  upon  the  Italian  patriots  that 
Napoleon  III  had  granted  an  armistice  to  the  Austrians  and  had  con- 
cluded the  preliminaries  of  a  peace  at  Villafranca  (July  12th).  By  this 
arrangement  Lombardy  was  to  be  ceded  to  Sardinia  ;  Austria  was  to  re- 
tain Venetia  and  the  Quadrilateral  ;  the  old  rulers  were  to  be  restored  in 
Tuscany,  Modena,  Parma  and  the  Roman  Legations,  and  Italy  was  to  be 
organized  as  a  federation  under  the  honorary  presidency  of  the  Pope. 
The  final  settlement  was  to  be  agreed  upon  in  a  conference  at  Zurich 
of  plenipotentiaries  from  Austria,  France  and  Sardinia.  Napoleon's 
motives  for  thus  breaking  his  promises  were  eagerly  debated  at  the  time, 
but  are  now  tolerably  clear.  He  was  carrying  on  the  war  not  only  for 
Italy,  but  also  for  France.  French  public  opinion,  which  he  could  not 
afford  to  disregard,  was  ready  to  welcome  any  weakness  of  Austria,  but 
looked  with  fear  and  suspicion  upon  the  erection  of  a  strong  and  united 
state  in  Italy.  It  was  obvious  that  the  victories  of  the  allies  would 
give  to  Sardinia,  not  only  Lombardy  and  Venetia,  but  the  whole  of 
central  Italy,  and  this  was  more  than  Napoleon  had  contemplated  at 
Plombieres.     Moreover,  the  annexation  of  the   Legations   would  bring 


n 

X 


r 


in 
C 

> 

I 

K 
O 
C 
H 

Z 

HI 

W 


u 
< 


z 
o 

H 

o 
z 


t/1 

Q 
Z 


z 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  427 

him  into  collision  with  the  Papacy,  and  the  Empire  was  not  strong 
enough  to  dispense  with  the  support  ot  the  priests.  Personal  motives 
had  also  great  weight  with  him.  He  had  done  enough  for  fame,  but 
he  was  conscious  that  his  victories  were  not  due  to  his  own  general- 
ship, and  that  an  attack  on  the  Quadrilateral  would  be  difficult  and 
probably    dangerous. 

UNION   OF   NORTHERN    ITALY. 

Victor  Emanuel  was  bitterly  disappointed  by  the  sudden  blow 
to  his  hopes.  Cavour  urged  him  to  repudiate  the  treaty,  to  refuse  the 
cession  of  Lombardy,  and  to  throw  the  whole  responsibility  of  the 
measure  upon  Napoleon  III.  But  the  King  was  too  prudent  to  take 
this  advice,  and  Cavour  resigned,  his  place  being  taken  by  Rattazzi 
Victor  Emanuel  accepted  the  treaty  of  Villafranca  "pour  ce  qui  me 
concerne,"  and  obtained  a  promise  from  the  Emperor  that  he  would  not 
tolerate  any  forcible  restoration  of  the  rulers  of  Tuscany,  Parma, 
Modena  and  the  Legations.  It  was  certain  that  the  people  would  not  do 
it  of  their  own  accord,  especially  while  they  were  assured  of  the  sym- 
pathy and  moral  support  of  Piedmont.  The  Sardinian  commissioners 
were  recalled,  but  their  place  was  taken  by  provisional  governments. 
Parma  and  Modena  were  united  into  a  single  State  under  the  name  of 
Emilia.  In  complete  disregard  of  the  treaty  of  Villafranca,  which  was  con- 
firmed by  the  conference  of  Zurich,  representative  assemblies  were  sum- 
moned, and  voted  for  the  annexation  of  their  respective  provinces  to  the 
Sardinian  monarchy.  Victor  Emanuel  received  their  envoys  graciously, 
and  promised  to  do  all  in  his  power  to  obtain  the  approval  of  Europe 
for  their  wishes.  It  was  suggested  that  a  European  Congress  should 
meet  to  discuss  the  question.  The  proposal  came  to  nothing,  but  it 
served  to  reconcile  Victor  Emanuel  and  Cavour.  The  latter  was  the 
only  man  who  could  be  trusted  to  represent  the  Italian  cause  among  the 
diplomatists  of  Europe. 

In  January,  i860,  Rattazzi  resigned  and  Cavour  was  entrusted  with 
the  formation  of  a  new  Ministry.  Great  exertions  were  made  to  induce 
the  Pope  to  listen  to  the  demands  of  his  subjects.  But  Pius  IX  would 
not  hear  of  any  diminution  of  his  temporal  power,  and  it  was  evident 
that  Victor  Emanuel  must  again  risk  a  quarrel  with  the  Papacy. 
To  conciliate  the  French  Emperor,  Cavour  determined  that  the  wishes  of 


428 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 


the  central  provinces  should  be  expressed  by  a  plebiscite.  The  result 
was  a  foreg-one  conclusion,  and  in  March,  i860,  Tuscany,  Emilia  and 
Romagna  were  formally  annexed  to  Sardinia.  In  the  next  month  a 
Parliament  met  in  which  the  new  provinces  were  represented,  and  the 
annexation  was  enthusiastically  confirmed.  The  deposed  princes  issued 
futile  protests,  and  the  Pope  resorted  to  his  last  weapon  of  excommuni- 
cation. 

SAVOY  AND    NICE. 

Napoleon  III  discovered  that  it  was  easier  to  excite  a  storm  than  to 
allay  it.  In  France  the  recent  expedition  was  attacked  as  a  quixotic 
enterprise  in  which  French  interests  had  been  sacrificed  to  the  aggran- 
dizement of  Sardinia.  To  satisfy  his  subjects  the  Emperor  now  de- 
manded the  cession  of  Savoy  and  Nice,  which  had  hitherto  been  dropped 
because  its  condition,  the  annexation  of  Venetia  with  Lombardy,  had  not 
been  fulfilled.  It  was  hard  for  Victor  Emanuel  to  give  up  the  country 
which  had  been  the  cradle  of  his  race,  but  political  interests  were  imper- 
ative. By  Cavour's  advice  he  consented  to  the  sacrifice  on  condition 
that  the  approval  should  be  obtained  both  of  the  Savoyards  and  the 
Italian  Parliament.  In  the  latter  a  violent  debate  took  place.  Garibaldi 
had  been  born  in  Nice,  and  expressed  bitter  resentment  at  its  annexation 
by  a  foreign  ruler.  But  the  majority  of  Italians  cared  little  for  Savoy, 
which  really  stood  outside  the  peninsula,  and  had  no  sympathy  with  the 
national  cause.  The  annexation  was  approved  by  229  votes  to  233. 
Thus  the  last  step  was  taken  in  the  long  process  by  which  the  house  of 
Savoy  was  transformed  into  a  purely  Italian  dynasty. 

GARIBALDI    LIBERATES  NAPLES  AND  SICILY. 

The  monarchy  of  Victor  Emanuel  now  included  the  whole  of  Italy 
with  the  exception  of  three  provinces,  Venetia,  the  remaining  Papal 
States,  and  the  Tv/o  Sicilies.  In  the  latter  kingdom  the  brutal  Ferdinand 
II  (Bomba)  had  been  succeeded  in  1859  by  his  son,  Francis  II.  Over- 
tures had  been  made  to  the  new  King  from  Turin,  proposing  the  forma- 
tion of  a  constitutional  monarchy  in  southern  Italy,  which  should  co- 
operate with  Sardinia  in  supporting  the  national  cause  against  the 
foreigner.  But  Francis  II  refused  to  alter  the  system  of  government 
bequeathed  by  his  father,  and  clung  obstinately  to  the  Austrian  alliance. 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  429 

Under  these  circumstances  a  contest  between  the  north  and  south  was 
inevitable.  But  Victor  Emanuel  could  not  venture  on  another  war  for 
his  own  aggrandizement  without  alienating  Europe  and  risking  a  quarrel 
with  France.  A  solution  of  the  difficulty  was  offered  by  an  independent 
adventurer,  whose  zeal  for  the  cause  of  Italy  was  not  affected  by  any 
regard  for  the  scruples  of  kings  and  princes.  Garibaldi,  indignant  at 
the  unpatriotic  sacrifice  of  Nice,  was  eager  to  find  a  new  field  of  action, 
and  determined  to  offer  himself  as  a  champion  to  the  oppressed  sub- 
jects of  the  house  of  Bourbon.  Collecting  a  thousand  volunteers  at 
Genoa,  he  sailed  to  Sicily  and  landed  near  Marsala  (May  14,  i860). 
Within  two  months  the  whole  island  had  been  secured  by  the  reduction 
of  Palermo  (June  6th)  and  Messina  (June  25th).  Garibaldi  became  an 
almost  mythical  hero,  and  his  fame  began  to  overshadow  that  of  Victor 
Emanuel  and  Cavour.  Francis  II  now  hastened  to  announce  his  inten- 
tion of  granting  a  constitution  and  allying  himself  with  Sardinia.  But  it 
was  too  late  to  win  the  confidence  of  a  people  that  had  so  often  suffered 
from  the  perfidy  of  their  rulers.  Garibaldi  crossed  over  to  the  mainland, 
met  with  absolutely  no  resistance,  and  entered  Naples  in  triumph  (Sep- 
tember 7th).  Francis  II  retired  with  20,000  troops  to  Gaeta,  while 
another  part  of  his  army  occupied  Capua. 

DEFEAT  OF  THE  PAPAL  ARMY. 

Meanwhile  Pius  IX  had  commenced  a  crusade  for  the  recovery  of 
the  Legations,  and  entrusted  the  command  of  his  army  to  the  French 
General,  Lamoriciere.  The  Government  of  Turin  demanded  the  dis- 
armament of  this  force,  and  on  the  Pope's  refusal  an  army  under  Cialdini 
entered  Umbria.  At  Castel  Fidardo  the  Papal  army,  a  disorganized 
rabble  of  different  nationalities,  was  utterly  routed  (September  14th  . 
Lamoriciere  had  to  surrender  in  Ancona,  and  was  sent  back  to  France. 
Austria,  Russia,  Prussia  and  France  expressed  their  disapproval  of  the 
invasion  of  Papal  territory  by  recalling  their  Ambassadors  from  Turin. 
But  Victor  Emanuel,  having  made  up  his  mind  to  brave  the  perils  of 
excommunication,  was  not  much  impressed  with  this  diplomatic  protest. 
He  followed  his  army  to  Ancona  and  proceeded  thence  into  Naples.  An 
attack  upon  Rome  or  the  surrounding  Patrimony  of  St.  Peter  would  have 
brought  the  Sardinians  into  collision  with  the  French  garrison,  and  would 
certainly  have  roused  the  hostility  of  Napoleon  III. 


430 


STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 


VICTOR  EMANUEL  KING  OF  ITALY. 

The  rapid  success  of  Garibaldi  involved  an  unexpected  danger  for 
Sardinia.  He  had  not  been  in  any  formal  connection  with  the  court  of 
Turin,  and  had,  in  fact,  conquered  Naples  against  its  will.  Instead  of 
annexing  his  conquest  to  Victor  Emanuel's  kingdom,  he  assumed  the 
tide  of  Dictator,  and  went  so  far  as  to  demand  the  dismissal  of  Cavour. 
Mazzini  urged  him  to  form  a  republic  of  Naples,  and  such  an  act  must 
have  retarded,  if  it  did  not  prevent,  the  union  of  Italy.  But  Cavour  acted 
with  politic  decision.  Representing  to  the  French  Emperor  that  his 
action  was  necessary  to  thwart  the  revolutionary  party,  he  assembled  the 
Parliament  and  obtained  from  it  a  decree  authorizing  the  annexation  of 
the  conquered  Papal  Provinces  and  the  Two  Sicilies.  Garibaldi  found  it 
necessary  to  play  a  more  humble  part  than  had  been  suggested  to  him. 
He  was  still  engaged  in  besieging  Capua  when  the  arrival  of  the  Sar- 
dinian army  compelled  the  capitulation  of  the  fortress.  He  laid  down 
his  temporary  dictatorship,  acknowledged  the  authority  of  Victor 
Emanuel,  and  retired,  covered  with  glory,  to  his  island  home  at  Caprera. 
The  siege  of  Gaeta  was  now  commenced  in  form  by  Cialdini.  For  some 
time  the  presence  of  the  French  fleet  prevented  an  attack  by  sea,  but  at 
last,  on  February  i6,  1861,  Francis  II  had  to  surrender,  and  sought 
refuge  in  Rome.  A  real  Italian  kingdom  had  now  been  formed  by  the 
addition  of  Umbria,  the  Marches  and  the  Two  Sicilies.  Nearly  23,000,000 
subjects  acknowledged  the  rule  of  Victor  Emanuel.  There  were  diffi- 
culties and  dangers  to  be  confronted  in  the  future.  National  unity  could 
not  be  created  all  at  once.  The  population  of  the  south  had  had  no 
training  to  fit  them  for  the  enjoyment  of  constitutional  liberties,  and 
some  time  must  elapse  before  Naples  could  stand  on  the  same  political 
level  as  Piedmont  or  Tuscany.  The  Austrians  still  held  Venetia,  and 
would  seize  the  first  opportunity  to  r-'icover  their  lost  supremacy.  Rome, 
with  its  Papal  Government  and  French  garrison,  was  not  yet  Italian,  and 
provincial  jealousies  must  continue  as  long  as  any  but  the  Eternal  City 
was  regarded  as  the  capital.  But  all  these  considerations  were  forgotten 
on  February  18,  1861,  when  the  first  Italian  Parliament,  containing  repre- 
sentatives from  all  the  provinces  except  Venetia  and  the  Patrimony,  met 
in  the  Palazzo  Carignano  at  Turin.  Vociferous  cheers  greeted  the  arrival  • 
of  "  Victor  Emanuel  II,  by  the  grace  of  God  and  the  will  of  the  nation. 
King  of  Italy."     This  ceremony  was  followed  within  a  few  weeks  by  the 


ipf  ff^ 


_  :.-,i  ,i...a;^i.. 


1875— AMERICAN   FASHIONS 


STORY    OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS.  433 

death  of  the  man  who  had  contributed  more  than  any  other  to  bring 
about  this  grand  result.  Cavour  must  always  rank  as  one  of  the  ablest 
diplomatists  of  the  nineteenth  century ;  but  he  was  more  than  a  diplo- 
matist, he  was  a  statesman.  His  keen  perception  that  Italy  could  not 
be  set  free  without  foreign  assistance  ;  the. adroit  use  which  he  made  of 
Napoleon  III  ;  the  way  in  which  he  evaded  the  treaty  of  Villafranca  ;  and, 
above  all,  the  masterly  manner  in  which  he  ousted  Garibaldi  from  Naples, 
were  all  diplomatic  triumphs  of  the  highest  order.  But  his  internal 
reforms  ;  his  measures  for  the  advancement  of  trade  and  education  ;  his 
adherence  to  liberal  principles  in  the  face  of  a  revolutionary  party  ;  his 
appreciation  of  the  difficulties  of  uniting  southern  with  northern  Italy,  are 
no  less  conclusive  proofs  of  his  constructive  statesmanship.  It  was  hard 
for  him  to  die  before  his  work  was  completed  by  the  acquisition  of  Venice 
and  Rome,  but  he  may  be  credited  with  having  anticipated  the  way  in 
which  this  completion  was  to  be  brought  about.  He  foresaw  the  rise  of 
Prussia,  and  sought  to  enlist  the  sympathies  of  that  power  with  the  Italian 
cause.  He  was  anxious  to  settle  the  Roman  question  peaceably  so  as  to 
avoid  offending  the  Roman  Catholic  powers.  The  temporal  power  had 
undoubted  advantages,  but  at  the  same  time  it  imposed  serious  checks 
upon  the  action  of  the  church.  Cavour  offered  the  removal  of  these 
checks  in  exchange  for  the  sacrifice  of  temporal  sovereignty.  His 
favorite  expression,  ''Libera  Chiesa  in  Libera  Stato"  (a  free  Church  in  a 
free  State),  has  been  rightly  chosen  as  the  inscription  on  his  tomb. 

intere:sts  of  various  lands. 

The  year  1858  saw  France,  assisted  by  Spain,  waging  a  war  with 
Anam,  and  thus  taking  another  step  toward  the  upbuilding  of  a  great 
Indo-Chinese  empire  for  herself.  At  the  same  time  Russia  gompelled 
China  to  cede  to  her  the  great  Amoor  territory  south-east  of  Siberia. 

In  Mexico  we  have  to  record  the  fall  of  President  Comonfort.  The 
succession  was  violently  disputed.  The  clerical  and  reactionary'  parties 
put  forward  Zuloaga  and  recognized  him  as  President.  The  Liberals  on 
the  other  hand  declared  Benito  Juarez  to  be  President.  General 
Miramon,  leader  of  the  reactionary  party,  was  at  first  successful,  but 
instead  of  putting  Zuloaga  into  power  he  seized  supreme  power  for  him- 
self in   1859.     In  i860,  however,  Juarez  was  successful.     He  overthrew 

Miramon  and  became  President  of  Mexico, 
23 


434  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

Massacres  of  the  Maronites  by  Druses  in  the  Lebanon,  and  of 
Christian  at  Damascus  in  i860,  led  to  the  intervention  of  Europe  and  the 
sending  of  a  French  force  to  Syria,  as  a  result  of  which  the  Lebanon  was 
formed  into  a  semi-autonomous  State  with  a  Christian  Governor. 

In  1860-61  the  Emperor  of  Austria  undertook  a  re-organization  of 
his  complex  realm  on  a  federal  basis.  The  constitutional  system  of 
consolidation  was  adopted  in  February,  1S61. 

On  January  2,  1861,  Prince  William  of  Prussia  succeeded  his 
brother,  King  Frederick  William  IV,  as  King  William  I. 

The  final  emancipation  of  the  serfs  of  Russia  dates  from  March  3, 
1 86 1.  I  he  Crimean  war  had  exhausted  the  resources  of  Russia  and  had 
given  rise  to  great  discontent  in  that  country.  To  satisfy  his  subjects 
Alexander  II  adopted  a  liberal  policy  and  introduced  a  number  of  reforms, 
of  which  the  greatest  was  the  emancipation  of  the  serfs.  The  peasants 
on  the  crown  domains,  some  20,000,000  in  number,  received  personal 
freedom  by  a  series  of  edicts  in  1858.  More  ditificulty  was  experienced 
in  dealing  with  the  serfs  of  private  owners,  but,  after  long  negotiations 
with  the  territorial  lords,  the  great  edict  was  issued  on  March  3,  1861. 
All  peasants  attached  to  the  soil  became  free  cultivators,  with  the  per- 
manent occupation  of  part  of  their  land,  the  rest  being  left  to  the  lord. 
The  permanent  occupation  might  be  exchanged  for  absolute  ownership 
by  a  money  payment,  and  the  Governm(>nt  organized  a  system  of  loans 
to  enable  the  peasants  to  free  themselves  at  once  by  becoming  debtors 
to  the  State. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII. 


First   Atlantic    Cable    used    for    a    few  Messages — African  Exploration — 

Livingstone    Discovers    Lake    Nyassa  —  "  Striking    Oil" — 

Fate    of    Sir    John     Franklin  —  Literary 

Landmarks — The  Death  Roll. 


WE  have  hitherto  told  of  the  invention  of  the  electric  tele- 
graph, and  of  the  earliest  attempts  to  operate  it  by  means 
of  submarine  cables.  After  the  practicability  of  cables 
across  such  bits  of  water  as  the  British  Channel  was  fully 
demonstrated,  there  were  grave  doubts  of  the  possibility  of  extending 
it  across  so  vast  an  expanse  of  water  as  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  In  1853, 
however,  Cyrus  West  Field,  of  New  York,  became  interested  in  the 
subject.  His  first  venture  was  the  building  of  a  land  line  across 
Newfoundland,  to  receive  and  transmit  news  brought  by  swift  steam- 
ships from  the  coast  of  Ireland.  The  next  year  he  obtained  from  the 
Government  of  Newfoundland  for  a  period  of  fifty  years  the  exclusive 
right  to  land  upon  the  coast  of  that  island  telegraphic  cables  crossing 
the  Atlantic  Ocean.  This  was  little  noticed  at  the  time,  save  as  the 
whim  of  a  visionary,  which  never  could  be  realized.  But  Mr.  Field 
was  in  earnest.  He  formed  a  company,  which  he  called  the  New 
York,  Newfoundland  and  London  Telegraph  Company,  his  associates 
being  Peter  Cooper,  Moses  Taylor,  Marshall  O.  Roberts,  and  Chandler 
White.  In  1856  this  company  had  completed  its  lines  from  New 
York  to  the  eastern  coast  of  Newfoundland.  But  then  the  real 
work  was  to  begin. 

Mr.  Field  went  to  London  in  1856,  and  there  organized  the  At- 
lantic Telegraph  Company,  of  which  he  himself  furnished  one-fourth  of 
the  capital.  He  prevailed  upon  the  British  and  United  States  Govern- 
ments to  furnish  the  ships  for  carrying  and  laying  the  cable.  The 
first  cable-laying  expedidon  set  out  in  1857,  Mr.  Field  himseli 
accompanying  it.  The  work  of  laying  the  cable  was  begun  at  Val- 
entia,    Ireland,    on  August    5,    1857,    the    vessels  employed    being   the 

435 


436  STORY   OF   ONE   HUNDRED    YEARS, 

"Niagara"  and  "Susquehanna,"  of  the  United  States,  and  the  "Leopard" 
and  "Agamemnon,"  British.  After  paying  out  a  few  miles,  the  cable 
snapped.  It  was  repaired,  and  the  vessels  went  on.  On  August  ii, 
when  they  had  laid  about  500  miles,  the  cable  snapped  again,  and  the 
ships  returned  to  Plymouth.  On  June  20-21,  1858,  a  second  attempt 
was  made,  but  was  brought  to  failure  by  a  violent  storm.  The  third 
attempt  was  successful.  The  vessels  made  their  way  from  Ireland  to 
Newfoundland,  and  joined  Europe  and  America  with  2050  miles  of 
wire.  On  August  16,  1858,  the  first  message  was  sent,  from  Queen 
Victoria  to  President  Pierce,  and  the  second  was  the  President's  reply 
to  the  Queen.  This  event  caused  world-wide  rejoicing,  which  was, 
however,  destined  to  be  short-lived.  The  cable  had  not  been  properly 
made.  Its  insulation  failed,  and  by  September  4  it  altogether  failed 
to  work.  A  new  company  was  promptly  formed,  to  perfect  the  under- 
taking which  was  now  seen  to  be  practicable,  and  a  few  years  later 
the  task  which  Mr.  Field  had  set  before  himself  was  successfully 
accomplished.  The  story  of  that  triumph  belongs,  however,  to  a  later 
chapter. 

AFRICAN   EXPLORATION. 

The  work  of  African  exploration  was  steadily  pressed.  In  1857 
the  great  area  of  Damara  Land,  in  the  south-western  part  of  the  Conti- 
nent, was  traversed  by  Hahn  and  Rath,  German  explorers,  from  which 
fact  Germany  in  after  years  derived  lier  title  to  that  territory.  Dr. 
Bastian  was  at  that  time,  exploring  parts  of  the  Angola  and  Congo 
country,  and  Paul  Du  Chaillu  was  at  work  on  the  west  coast.  Under 
the  auspices  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  of  Great  Britain, 
Captains  Burton  and  Speke,  who  had  already  done  good  work  at 
Harrar,  a  trading  centre  in  Somali  Land,  set  out  from  Zanzibar  to 
survey  the  interior  of  the  continent,  and  especially  to  find  if  possible 
certain  great  lakes,  the  existence  of  which  had  been  reported  by  the 
Mombas  missionaries.  Their  most  successful  effort  was  made  in 
1857-9,  which  resulted  in  the  discovery  of  the  great  Lake  Tanganyika, 
in  a  deep -basin  in  eastern  Africa,  and  of  the  southern  portion  of 
another  large  lake  lying  to  the  north  thereof,  which  Speke  believed  to 
be  the  source  of  the  Nile.  Captain  Speke  was  anxious  to  extend  his 
knowledge  of  this  marvelous  country,  and  in  i860  he  set  out  with 
Captain  Grant  on  another  expedition,  the  results  of  which  were  of  the 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  437 

highest  interest,  and  will  be  related  in  their  proper  chronological  order 
in  another  chapter. 

Meantime,  Petherick,  Lejean,  Miani,  the  Poncets,  Antinori,  Debono, 
Peney,  and  others  were  exploring  the  Nile  valley  trom  the  Egyptian 
end,  and  the  French  scientist  Duveyrier  was  exploring  the  Algerian 
Sahara. 

LIVINGSTONE  DISCOVERS   LAKE  NYASSA. 

The  Zambesi  expedition,  of  which  Livingstone  was  commander, 
sailed  from  Liverpool  in  H.  ]\L  S.  "Pearl"  on  March  lo,  1S58,  and 
reached  the  mouth  of  the  Zambesi  on  May  14,  and  the  party  ascended 
the  river  from  the  Kongone  mouth  in  a  steam  launch,  the  "  Ma-Robert," 
reaching  Tette  on  September  8.  The  remainder  of  the  year  was 
spent  in  examining  the  river  above  Tette,  and  especially  the  Kebrabasa 
rapids.  Most  of  the  year  1859  was  spent  in  the  exploration  of  the 
river  Shire  and  Lake  Nyassa,  which  was  discovered  in  September ; 
and  much  of  the  year  i860  was  spent  by  Livingstone  in  fulfilling  his 
promise  to  take  such  of  the  Makalolo  home  as  cared  to  go.  In  Janu- 
ary of  next  year  arrived  Bishop  Mackenzie  and  a  party  of  mission 
aries  sent  out  by  the  Universities  Mission  to  establish  a  station  on 
the  upper  Shire. 

"STRIKING   OIL." 

The  year  1858  was  made  memorable  by  the  beginning  of  the 
great  petroleum  industry  in  the  United  States.  In  the  earliest  Colon- 
ial days  the  existence  of  a  natural  mineral  oil  had  been  known,  and 
the  oil  had  been  gathered  in  a  rude  way  and  used  for  medicinal  pur- 
poses by  the  Indians  and  the  Colonists.  In  the  first  quarter  of 
this  centur)'  many  wells  were  sunk  in  eastern  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and 
adjacent  regions,  for  salt  water,  from  which  to  manufacture  salt. 
Some  of  these  yielded  a  crude  oil,  which  was  merely  enough  to 
spoil  the  brine  and,  as  was  supposed,  to  make  the  well  worthless. 
A  well  in  Kentucky,  1829,  yielded  so  much  and  so  good  oil,  how- 
ever, that  the  proprietor  bottled  the  oil  and  sold  it  for  medicinal 
purposes. 

The  refining  of  petroleum  and  use  of  it  for  illuminating  purposes 
were  first  undertaken  in  France,  in  1834.  Twenty  years  later  a 
patent   was    taken  out  in  this  country  for  a  similar  process,  and  then 


438  STORY    OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

men  began  to  see  the  value  of  the  oil  they  had  formerly  regarded  as 
worthless.  The  Pennsylvania  Rock  Oil  Company  was  formed  in  1854, 
for  the  purpose  of  procuring  oil  at  Oil  Creek,  Pennsylvania.  It  did 
not  prosper,  and  in  1858  leased  its  land  near  the  present  city  of 
Titusville  to  a  portion  of  its  stockholders,  who  employed  Colonel 
Drake  to  sink  an  artesian  well  thereon.  After  numerous  unsuccess- 
ful efforts,  a  well  was  driven  to  a  depth  of  sixty-nine  feet,  and  then 
began  to  yield  an  abundant  flood  of  fine  petroleum.  The  success  of 
this  well  was  the  signal  for  such  a  rush  as  may  be  compared  only 
with  the  rush  for  gold  in  California.  The  country  was  soon  dotted 
with  wells,  of  which  many  were  worthless,  but  many  others  were  pro- 
lific of  oil,  and  thus  one  of  the  greatest  and  most  profitable  industries 
in  the  world  had  its  origin.  The  precise  date  of  "striking  oil"  in 
Colonel  Drake's  well  was  August  29,  1859. 

FATE  OF  SIR  JOHN  FRANKLIN. 

While  these  important  discoveries  were  being  made  in  Equatorial 
Africa,  other  explorers  were  busy  in  the  Arctic  regions.  In  1859 
McClintock  succeeded  where  so  many  had  failed,  and  discovered  the 
fate  of  Sir  John  Franklin  and  his  comrades.  It  was  ascertained  that 
the  entire  Franklin  expedition  had  perished,  but  not  before  it  had  in  1846 
discovered  the  North-west  Passage  which  had  been  the  object  of  its 
illustrious  leader's  quest ;  so  that  Franklin  was  triumphant,  though  at 
the  cost  of  his  life. 

The  same  year,  1859,  saw  Russia  victorious  over  the  tribes  of  the 
Caucasus  by  her  defeat  of  Shamyl  at  Ghunib  on  September  6.  Thus 
another  ste     toward  Russian  domination  of  Asia  was  effected. 

Oscar  I  of  Sweden  was  in  1859  succeeded  by  his  son,  Charles 
XV,    the  latter  having  been  Regent  for  two  years. 

LITERARY    LANDMARKS. 

Two  noteworthy  literary  landmarks  of  the  age  must  here  be 
noted.  In  1857  the  first  part  of  Buckle's  "  History  of  Civilization  in 
England"  was  published.  In  1859  appeared  a  still  greater  work,  mark- 
ing an  epoch  in  science.  This  was  Charles  Darwin's  "Origin  of 
Species,"  which  forms  the  foundation  of  the  whole  system  of  evolution- 
ary philosophy. 


STORV  (JF  one  hundred  YEARS.  439 

Another  event  of  vast  importance  in  the  world  of  science  was  the 
introduction  of  spectrum  analysis,  by  Kirchhoff  and  Bunsen.  This 
marvelous  invention  may  be  said  to  have  revolutionized  several  of  the 
chief  departments  of  science,  including  chemistry  and  astronomy. 

THE  DEATH  ROLL. 

Illustrious  names  were  plentifully  added  to  "the  silent  majority" 
in  the  years  of  which  we  are  writing.  The  year  1857  saw  the  deaths 
of  Alfred  de  Musset  and  Beranger,  two  of  the  most  noted  of  French 
lyric  poets;  of  Eugene  Sue,  the  author  of  "The  Wandering  Jew" 
and  similar  works,  which  laid  the  foundation  of  a  new  school  of 
French  fiction  ;  and  of  Comte,  the  philosopher  and  founder  of  Pos- 
itivism. 

In  1859  the  world  lost  three  of  its  greatest  historians  in  Hallam, 
Prescott,  and  Macaulay ;  De  Tocqueville,  the  author  of  "  Democracy 
in  America,"  a  work  which  has  become  a  classic  ;  Washingfton  Irvine, 
one  of  the  chief  adornments  of  America  literature  ;  De  Quincey,  one 
of  the  greatest  of  critics  and  essayists  ;  Humboldt,  one  of  the  most 
colossal  figures  in  the  world  of  natural  science  ;  Metternich,  the  last 
of  the  giants  of  the  old  school  of  diplomacy  and  reactionary  govern- 
ment ;  and  Schopenhauer,  founder  of  the  pessimistic  school  of  philosophy. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV. 


Abraham  Lincoln  becomes  President  of  the  United  States — Plans  of  Seces- 
sionists— Beginning  of  the  War — The  Great  Uprising — The  First  Fight- 
ing—Bull Run— The  "Trent"  Affair  — Fort  Donelson  —  Pittsburg 
Landing — "  Merrimac  "  and  Monitor — Capture  of  New  Orleans 
— McClellan's  Campaigns — The  Second  Bull  Run — Antie- 
tam — Emancipation — Operations  in  the  West — Vicks- 
burg — Chancellorsville — Gettysburg — Riots  in  New 
York — Chickamauga — Grant  in  Virginia — Win- 
chester— Sherman's  March — Thomas  in  Ten- 
nessee— Naval    Operations — End  of   the 
War — Assassination  of  Lincoln — Pres- 
ident Johnson — Impeachment. 


THE  history  of  Lincoln's  administration  as  President  of  the  United 
States  is  a  history  chiefly  of  civil  war  and  of  the  abolition  of 
slavery.  We  have  already  related  how,  during  the  period  between 
Lincoln's  election  in  November,  i860,  and  his  inauguration  on 
March  4,  1861,  several  of  the  Southern  States  seceded  from  the  Union, 
organized  themselves  in  a  new  Confederacy,  and  prepared  for  war.  At 
this  time  the  population  of  the  entire  country  was  more  than  31,000,000. 
Of  these,  9,000,000  were  in  the  seceding  Southern  States,  3,700,000  of 
them  being  negro  slaves,  while  in  the  loyal  States  of  the  North  there 
were  more  than  22,000,000.  In  point  of  wealth,  the  superiority  of  the 
North  over  the  South  was  still  more  marked.  Nearly  all  the  manufac- 
tures of  the  nation  were  in  the  Northern  States.  The  South  was  almost 
exclusively  an  agricultural  country,  cotton,  sugar,  tobacco  and  rice  being 
its  great  staples.  Away  back  in  Jackson's  Administration  South  Caro- 
lina had  violently  resisted  the  imposition  of  a  protective  tariff,  and  other 
Southern  States  had  sympathized  with  her.  Now,  in  the  new  Confed- 
eracy a  protective  tariff  was  constitutionally  prohibited.  The  result  was 
that  the  Confederacy  found  itself  without  manufactures  and  unable  to 
create  them,  and  dependent  for  manufactured  goods  upon  importations 
from  abroad.     As  soon  as  the  Federal  Government  was  able  to  blockade 

440 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  44 1 

the  Southern  ports  and  prevent  imports,  the  Confederacy  was  deprived 
of  necessary  supplies.  On  the  score  of  fiscal  policy,  therefore,  the 
advantage  rested  virith  the  North  as  decidedly  as  in  other  respects. 

PLANS  OF  SECESSIONISTS. 

It  was  the  hope  and  expectation  of  the  secessionists  that  all  the  slave 
States  would  secede.  In  this  they  were  disappointed,  for  in  addition  to 
the  States  mentioned  in  a  preceding  chapter  as  having  seceded,  only  four 
others  withdrew  from  the  Union.  They  were  Arkansas,  Tennessee, 
North  Carolina  and  Virginia.  These  did  not  secede  from  the  Union 
until  after  Lincoln's  inauguration  and  the  actual  beginning  ot  hostilities. 
When  the  war  actually  began  in  South  Carolina,  and  Lincoln  called  on 
the  various  State  Governments  for  troops,  the  Governors  of  these  States 
refused  to  respond  to  the  call,  and  the  States  thereupon  seceded.  There 
were,  however,  many  strong  Unionists  in  North  Carolina  and  Arkansas, 
and  nearly  all  the  people  in  the  eastern  part  of  Tennessee  remained 
loyal  to  the  Union.  In  the  western  part  of  Virginia  the  Union  sentiment 
was  so  strong  that  a  solid  block  of  forty  counties  seceded  from  the  State 
and  organized  themselves  into  a  new  State,  which  was  afterwards  ad- 
mitted into  the  Union  as  West  Virginia.  By  this  separation  a  new  and 
loyal  State  was  added  to  the  Union,  and  the  old  State  of  Virginia  was 
deprived  of  about  two-fifths  of  her  territory  and  one-fourth  of  her  popu- 
lation, and  was  reduced  in  rank  among  the  States  from  fifth  to  ninth. 
Even  with  this  loss,  however,  Virginia  remained  the  most  populous  and 
most  important  State  of  the  Southern  Confederacy,  and  in  May,  1861, 
the  capital  of  the  Confederacy  was  removed  from  Montgomery,  Alabama, 
to  Richmond,  Virginia.  This  fact,  and  the  proximity  of  Virginia  to  the 
seat  of  the  National  Government  at  Washington,  made  Virginia  the  chief 
battle-ground  of  the  war. 

The  secessionists  also  counted  upon  material  aid  from  the  Democrats 
at  the  North.  In  this  they  were  disappointed.  They  did  receive  a  little 
aid  and  encouragement  from  a  few  Democrats  who  were  popularly  termed 
"  Copperheads,"  but  the  great  mass  of  the  Northern  Democracy  followed 
the  example  of  .Senator  Douglas  and  other  eminent  leaders,  and  loyally 
supported  President  Lincoln  in  his  efforts  to  preserve  the  Union.  The 
secessionists  also  hoped  for  substantial  aid  from  France  and  England,  if 
not  for  actual  intervention  in  their  behalf    They  knew  that  the  great  cot- 


442  STORV    OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

ton  factories  of  England  depended  upon  the  Southern  States  for  their 
supply  of  raw  material.  Blockade  of  the  Southern  ports  would  there- 
fore mean  great  industrial  distress  in  England,  and  might  lead  to  inter- 
vention. As  a  matter  of  fact  the  cotton  industries  of  Engfland  were 
almost  entirely  prostrated  by  the  war,  and  a  strong  sentiment  in  favor 
of  the  South  was  thus  aroused.  Some  aid  was  clandestinely  given  to  the 
South  also  by  individual  Englishmen,  including  Mr.  Gladstone,  in  the 
way  of  fitting  out  privateers  to  prey  upon  American  commerce.  But 
largely  through  the  personal  influence  of  the  Queen,  the  British  Govern- 
ment remained  neutral  and  entirely  friendly  to  the  United  States,  and 
when  the  French  Emperor,  Louis  Napoleon,  proposed  armed  interven- 
tion in  favor  of  the  South,  and  the  Russian  Government  agreed  to  the 
proposition,  the  British  Government  peremptorily  vetoed  it,  and  insisted 
that  the  United  States  should  be  left  unhampered  in  its  efforts  to  preserve 
its  national  existence. 

BEGINNING    OF    THE    WAR. 

Lincoln  became  President  on  March  4th.  At  that  time  the  Gov- 
ernment of  South  Carolina  had  already  seized  some  of  the  National  for- 
tifications at  Charleston,  and  was  threatening  to  seize  the  most  important 
of  them  all,  Fort  Sumter.  On  April  8th  the  Governor  of  South  Carolina 
was  notified  that  reinforcements  and  supplies  were  forthwith  to  be  sent  by 
the  Federal  Government  to  the  garrison  of  Fort  Sumter.  He  tele- 
graphed this  information  to  Jefferson  Davis,  the  President  of  the  Con- 
federacy, at  Montgomery,  and  a  Cabinet  meeting  was  at  once  called  to 
determine  what  should  be  done.  Most  of  the  Confederate  leaders  were 
in  favor  of  violent  resistance.  The  only  one  who  took  a  decided  stand 
against  it  was  the  Secretary  of  State,  Robert  Toombs,  formerly  a  United 
States  Senator  from  Georgia.  He  had  always  had  the  reputation  of 
beine  a  "fire-eater,"  but  on  this  occasion  his  counsels  were  conservative 

o 

and  peaceful.  To  fire  upon  Fort  Sumter,  he  said,  "would  surely  inaug- 
urate a  civil  war  greater  than  any  the  world  has  yet  seen.  You  will  wan- 
tonly strike  a  hornet's  nest  which  extends  from  mountains  to  ocean,  and 
legions  now  quiet  will  swarrfi  out  and  sting  us  to  death.  It  is  unneces 
sary.  It  puts  us  in  the  wrong.  It  is  fatal."  Despite  this  warning,  which 
subsequent  events  fulfilled,  the  other  Confederate  officers  decided  upon 
war.     President  Davis  sent  orders  to  General  Beauregard  at  Charleston 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  443 

to  demand  the  evacuation  of  Fort  Sumter  by  the  Federal  troops,  and  in 
case  the  demand  was  not  complied  with,  to  attack  the  fort  and  reduce  it. 
The  demand  was  made.  The  Federal  officer  in  command,  Major  Robert 
Anderson,  refused  to  surrender.  Thereupon  a  bombardment  of  the  fort 
was  begun  by  the  Confederate  batteries  encircling  it.  The  attack  was 
begun  on  the  morning  of  Friday,  April  12th,  and  was  continued  until 
the  following  Sunday  afternoon.  Many  thousands  of  men  took  part  in 
the  attack,  while  the  defenders  of  the  fort  numbered  only  seventy.  At 
last  the  little  garrison  surrendered  and  marched  out  with  colors  flying. 
Not  a  man  was  killed  on  either  side. 

THE  GREAT  UPRISING. 

Thus  the  war  began.  On  Monday,  April  15th,  President  Lincoln 
issued  a  proclamation  calling  for  75,000  troops  to  suppress  the  rebellion. 
Two  days  later  Jefferson  Davis  replied  with  a  proclamation  authorizing 
the  fitting  out  of  privateers  to  destroy  United  States  commerce.  Two 
days  later  still.  President  Lincoln  declared  the  whole  Southern  coast, 
from  South  Carolina  to  Texas,  in  a  state  of  blockade.  Thus  on  both 
sides  war  was  unmistakably  declared.  By  a  curious  coincidence  the  first 
actual  bloodshed  occurred  on  April  19th,  the  anniversary  of  the  first 
shedding  of  blood  in  the  Revolutionary  War.  On  that  day  a  regiment 
from  Massachusetts,  on  its  way  to  Washington  in  response  to  the 
President's  call,  was  fired  upon  by  a  mob  in  the  city  of  Baltimore,  and 
several  men  were  killed. 

The  fall  of  Fort  Sumter  did  indeed,  as  Mr.  Toombs  had  predicted, 
"strike  a  hornet's  nest."  Instantly  there  was  a  tremendous  uprising  of 
patriotic  feeling  throughout  the  North.  The  whole  nation  started  into 
action.  Lincoln's  first  call  was  for  75,000  troops.  Within  a  few  weeks, 
more  than  300,000  were  placed  at  his  disposal. 

THE  FIRST   FIGHTING. 

The  first  military  operations  of  importance  were  in  the  border  State 
of  Missouri.  This  was  a  most  important  State,  and  desperate  efforts 
were  made  on  the  one  side  to  draw  it  into  the  Confederacy,  and  on  the 
other  to  hold  it  loyal  to  the  Union.  The  majority  of  the  people  favored 
the  Union,  but  the  State  Government  inclined  toward  secession.  The 
State  would  undoubtedly  have  been  committed  to  the  cause  of  secession 


444  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

had  it  not  been  for  the  prompt  action  of  two  loyal  men  at  St.  Louis, 
Frank  P.  Blair,  a  lawyer,  and  Captain  Nathaniel  Lyon,  Commander  of 
the  United  States  Arsenal.  In  May  and  June,  1861,  these  two  men 
orsfanized  a  movement  which  overthrew  the  existing  State  Government 
and  established  in  its  place  one  loyal  to  the  Union.  A  United  States 
force  was  quickly  organized  under  Lyon  and  put  into  the  field  to  oppose 
the  forces  which  the  secessionists  were  raising,  and  military  operations 
soon  began.  In  August  a  battle  was  fought  at  Wilson's  Creek,  in  which 
Lyon  was  defeated  and  killed.  In  spite  of  this,  however,  the  Union 
cause  was  triumphant  in  Missouri,  and  the  Confederates  soon  lost  their 
hope  ol  gaining  that  State. 

The  border  State  of  Maryland,  despite  a  strong  secessionist  senti- 
ment in  the  city  of  Baltimore,  remained  steadfastly  in  the  Union.  Ken- 
tucky did  the  same.  At  the  beginning  of  September,  1861,  indeed,  a 
Confederate  army  of  15,000  men,  under  General  Polk,  invaded  the  State 
and  prepared  to  seize  the  important  town  of  Paducah,  at  the  junction  of 
the  Tennessee  and  Ohio  Rivers,  while  another  Confederate  army  entered 
the  State  by  way  of  Cumberland  Gap.  These  acts  strengthened  the 
Union  sentiment  in  the  State,  and  Kentucky  remained  loyal  throughout 
the  war.  At  this  time  there  was  a  small  Federal  force  at  Cairo,  Illinois, 
under  the  command  of  a  young  colonel  of  militia  named  Ulysses  Simp- 
son Grant.  He  was  a  West  Point  graduate,  and  had  served  in  the 
Mexican  War.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  had  returned  to  the 
military  service  of  the  country.  Three  days  after  the  invasion  of  Ken- 
tucky by  General  Polk,  Grant  crossed  over  from  Illinois  into  Kentucky 
and  occupied  Paducah.  This  was  a  highly  important  strategic  move, 
equivalent  to  a  great  victory  for  the  Union.  A  few  days  later  the  Ken- 
tucky Legislature,  by  an  overwhelming  majority,  directed  the  Governor 
to  demand  the  retirement  of  Polk  and  the  Confederate  army  from  the 
soil  of  Kentucky.  A  motion  was  also  made  for  a  similar  demand  for  the 
retirement  of  Grant  and  the  Federal  troops,  but  this  was  overwhelmingly 
defeated. 

BULL  RUN. 

The  first  noteworthy  battle  of  the  war  occurred  on  July  21st,  at  Bull 
Run,  Virginia.  A  Federal  force  of  35,000  men,  mostly  raw  recruits, 
under  command  of  General  McDowell,  was  marching  from  Washington 
toward  Richmond.     At  Bull  Run  it  came  into  conflict  with  a  Confederate 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  445 

army  of  about  the  same  size,  under  Generals  Beauregard  and  J.  T. 
Johnston.  For  several  hours  the  fighting  was  sustained  without  decisive 
result.  Then  Confederate  reinforcements  to  the  number  of  several 
thousand  arrived  upon  the  scene.  The  Union  army  was  thrown  into 
disorder,  and  panic  and  a  discreditable  rout  ensued.  The  total  losses  in 
the  battle  were  about  5000  killed  and  wounded.  This  defeat  was  a  blow 
to  the  Union  cause,  but  it  had  the  valuable  effect  of  further  arousing  the 
Northern  mind  to  a  realization  of  the  seriousness  of  the  struggle. 

A  litde  later  the  Confederate  armies  invaded  West  Virginia  and 
were  driven  out  by  Union  troops  commanded  by  Generals  McClellan 
and  Rosecrans.  His  successes  in  those  operations  raised  McClellan  high 
in  popular  favor,  and  he  was  widely  acclaimed  as  a  "Young  Napoleon." 
In  the  fall  of  1861  he  was  summoned  to  Washington,  and  there  succeeded 
the  venerable  General  Scott  as  general  commanding  the  entire  United 
States  army.  He  thereupon  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  organizing  and 
drilling  the  great  army  which  had  been  collected  at  Washington,  and 
which  was  known  as  the  Army  of  the  Potomac. 

THE    "TRENT"    AFFAIR. 

At  the  end  of  1861  an  incident  occurred  which  came  very  near 
involvine  the  United  States  in  trouble  with  Great  Britain.  Two  Southern 
leaders,  Messrs.  Mason  and  Slidell,  were  sent  out  as  diplomatic  agents 
of  the  Confederacy  to  visit  England  and  France  and  seek  the  sympathy 
and  aid  of  those  powers.  They  succeeded  in  running  the  blockade  antl 
getting  to  Havana.  At  that  port  they  embarked  on  a  British  mail 
steamer,  the  "  Trent,"  for  England.  On  the  high  seas  the  "Trent"  was 
overtaken  by  the  United  States  warship  "San  Jacinto,"  commanded  by 
Captain  Wilkes,  and  Messrs.  Mason  and  Slidell  were  arrested  against 
the  protests  of  the  Captain  of  the  "Trent,"  and  were  brought  to  Boston 
and  confined  in  Fort  Warren.  This  act  was  at  first  enthusiastically 
applauded  throughout  the  Union,  and  the  House  of  Representatives  at 
Washington  adopted  a  resolution  thanking  Captain  Wilkes.  The 
British  Government,  however,  promptly  and  vigorously  protested,  and 
on  sober  second  thought  President  Lincoln  and  Secretary-  Seward 
realized  that  a  grave  error  had  been  committed.  The  seizure  of  Messrs. 
Mason  and  Slidell  was  formally  disavowed,  and  those  gentlemen  were 
released.     The  incident  intensified,  however,  the  animosity  toward  the 


446  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

United    States  which  was  already  felt  in    England  on  account  of  the 
depression  in  the  cotton  manufacturing  industry. 

FORT  DONELSON. 

The  earliest  operations  of  1862  occurred  in  the  West.  The  Con- 
federates had  massed  their  forces  at  various  points  in  Tennessee  and  in 
a  part  of  Kentucky.  The  centre  of  their  lines  in  that  part  of  the  country 
was  at  Fori  Henry,  on  the  Tennessee  River,  and  Fort  Donelson,  on  the 
Cumberland.  Their  right  extended  to  Bowling  Green,  near  the  centre  of 
Kentu  ky,  and  their  left  to  the  Mississippi  River.  At  their  right  they  were 
opposed  by  the  .\rmy  of  the  Cumberland,  under  General  Buell.  A  part 
of  Buell's  army,  under  General  Thomas,  won  an  important  Union  victory 
at  Mill  Spring,  Kentucky,  in  January,  1862,  and  drove  the  Confederates 
back  into  Tennessee.  In  February,  1862,  General  Grant,  cooperating 
with  Commodore  Foote  and  his  small  flotilla  of  gunboats,  captured  Fort 
Henry  and  Fort  Donelson,  taking  no  less  than  15,000  Confederates  as 
prisoners  of  war.  At  Fort  Donelson  the  Confederate  commander  tried 
to  negotiate  for  terms.  Grant's  reply  was,  "  No  terms  can  be  accepted 
except  an  unconditional  and  immediate  surrender.  I  propose  to  move 
immediately  upon  your  works."  The  unconditional  surrender  of  the 
fort  followed.  This  great  victory  and  the  manner  in  which  it  was 
effected  made  Grant  a  rival  of  McClellan  as  the  military  idol  of  the 
nation.  The  capture  of  Fort  Donelson  was  the  first  really  great  Union 
victory,  and  it  was  an  almost  fatal  blow  to  the  Confederate  cause  in  that 
part  of  the  country. 

PITTSBURG  LANDING. 

The  next  stand  made  by  the  Confederates  was  along  the  line  of  the 
southern  border  of  Tennessee,  from  Memphis  to  Chattanooga,  the  centre 
of  it  being  on  and  near  the  Tennessee  River,  at  Pittsburg  Landing, 
Shiloh  and  Corinth.  The  Confederates  were  there  under  the  command 
of  General  Albert  Sidney  Johnston,  one  of  their  very  ablest  officers,  and 
the  second  in  command  was  General  Beauregard.  On  the  Northern 
side  General  Grant  and  General  Buell  moved  forward  to  effect  a  junction 
at  Pittsburg  Landing.  Learning  of  their  plans  Johnston  rushed  his  army 
up  from  Corinth  toward  Pittsburg  Landing  in  order,  if  possible,  to  strike 
and  crush  Grant's  army  before  Buell's  could  join   it.     In   this  Johnston 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  447 

was  nearly  successful.  On  April  6th  the  armies  met  at  Shiloh.  General 
Johnston  was  killed  early  in  the  engagement,  and  Beauregard  succeeded 
him  in  command.  Grant's  army  suffered  dreadful  losses,  and  was  driven 
back  to  the  bank  of  the  Tennessee  River.  There  it  made  a.  desperate 
stand  aorainst  overwhelminir  odds,  and  succeeded  in  holding-  its  eround 
until  nightfall.  Then  Buell's  army  began  to  arrive.  Some  Federal  gun- 
boats approached  on  the  river  and  were  able  to  take  part  in  the  opera- 
tions of  the  next  day.  On  the  morning  of  April  7th  the  battle  was 
renewed,  and  for  si.x  hours  raged  with  great  fury.  The  result  was  that 
the  Confederates  were  driven  back  in  complete  disaster.  A  few  weeks 
later  they  were  driven  out  of  Corinth,  and  thus  the  centre  of  their  second 
line  was  utterly  broken. 

••MEHRIMAC"  AND  "MONITOR." 

Early  in  the  war  the  Federal  authorities,    partly  through  treason, 
partly  through  panic,  abandoned  the  great  United  .States  navy   yard  at 
Norfolk.  Virginia,  after  setting  fire  to  all  the  vessels,  arsenals  and  store- 
houses there.      Millions  of   dollars    worth  of  property   were    thus    de- 
stroyed.   One  of  the  vessels,  the  gigantic  warship  "  Merrimac,"  was  only 
partly  destroyed.     The   Confederates   raised   her  hulk,  renamed  her  the 
"Virginia,"  and   covered  her   with   a   heavy  sheathing  of  railroad  iron, 
sloping  up  from  the  water's  edge  in  the  form  of  a  barn  roof     They  pro- 
vided her  with  heavy  guns  and  a  monstrous  iron  beak  or  ram  at  her  bow. 
This  was  the  first    great  ironclad  warship   in   the  world.      The  Confed- 
erates e.xpected   that  she  would  be   able  easily  to  destroy   any  United 
States  ships  that  might  be  sent  against  her,  and    to  approach  and  bom- 
bard New  York,  Boston  and  the  other  great  Northern  seaports.     These 
expectations  came  perilously  near  fulfillment.     At  Hampton  Roads  the 
United  States  had  a  fleet  ot  five   warships,  probably  equal  in  strength  to 
any  other  five  ships  in  the  world,  save  only  the  "  Merrimac."     On  March 
8,  1862,  the  "  Merrimac  "  came  down  from  Norfolk  and  attacked  this  fleet. 
Their  shot  rattled  harmlessly  on   her  iron   sides,  while  her  cannon-balls 
went   through  and  through  their  wooden   sides.     The  great  ram  of  the 
"Merrimac"  crushed  in  the  sides  of  the  "Cumberland"  and  sent  her  to  the 
bottom  with  all  her  crew.  Then  the  "Merrimac"  attacked  the  "Congress  " 
drove  her  aground  and  forced  her  to  surrender.     Nightfall  interrupted 
the  battle,  but  there  was  no  reason   to  doubt  that  early  the  next  morning 


44S  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

the  Other  three  Union   ships  would  be  destroyed  and  the  "  Merrimac" 
would  proceed  on  her  career  of  destruction. 

But  the  next  day  had  in  store  a  surprise  even  greater  than  that  of 
the  appearance  of  the  "  Merrimac."  Captain  John  Ericsson,  of  whom 
we  have  already  spoken  as  the  inventor  of  the  screw-propeller  and  the 
hot-air  engine,  had  invented  a  type  of  vessel  which  he  called  the 
"  Monitor."  This  was  a  small  vessel,  with  all  of  its  hull  submerged  be- 
low the  water  excepting  a  few  inches  of  freeboard  and  the  deck,  all  of 
which  was  of  iron.  Upon  the  centre  of  the  deck  was  placed  a  cylindri- 
cal revolving  turret  of  iron,  containing  two  large  guns.  Very  little  faith 
was  placed  in  the  efficiency  of  such  a  vessel  save  by  Ericsson  himself  and 
a  few  friends.  The  boat  was  built  very  hurriedly  at  New  York,  and  be- 
fore she  was  fully  completed,  was  sent  to  Hampton  Roads  to  assist,  if 
possible,  the  other  ships  there  in  contending  with  the  "  Merrimac,"  of 
the  preparation  of  which  disquieting  rumors  had  gone  abroad.  The 
"  Monitor  "  arrived  at  Hampton  Roads  during  the  night  fallowing  the 
"  Merrimac's  "  attack  upon  the  fleet  and  the  destruction  of  the  "Cum- 
berland" and  the  "  Con^rress  "  She  next  cast  anchor  behind  the  bigf 
wooden  frigate  "  Minnesota,"  and  waited  for  the  morning.  Early  in  the 
forenoon  of  the  following  day  the  "  Merrimac"  again  approached  the 
Federal  fleet  and  made  her  first  attack  upon  the  "  Minnesota."  The  tiny 
"  Monitor,"  looking,  as  was  said,  "  like  a  cheese-box  on  a  plank," 
steamed  out  from  behind  the  frigate  and  engaged  her  gigantic  adversary. 

For  an  hour  the  two  ironclads  battered  each  other  with  cannon- 
balls,  and  the  "  Merrimac"  again  and  again,  but  in  vain,  tried  to  ram  the 
"  Monitor."  At  the  end  the  "  Merrimac "  was  beaten  and  was  com- 
pelled to  withdraw  from  the  scene,  completely  baffled.  The  "  Monitor," 
scarcely  injured,  remained  the  victor,  the  savior  of  the  Federal  navy  and 
of  the  seaboard  cities  of  the  North.  In  that  hour  naval  warfare  was 
revolutionized.  The  great  wooden  navies  of  the  world  were  seen  to  be 
worthless  before  the  advent  of  the  ironclad.  It  may  be  added  that  the 
"  Monitor"  was  afterwards  lost  in  a  storm  at  sea,  while  the  "  Merrimac" 
was  run  aground  in  the  James  River  and  burned. 

CAPTURE  OF  NEW  ORLEANS. 

The  first  task  of  the  United  States  Navy  in  the  war  was  that  of 
blockading  the  coast  of  the  Southern  States.     This  was  done  with  note- 


WASHINGTON  IRVING 


MARK  TWAIN 


1875— FAMOIS  POETRY  AM)  I'KoSE  WRITERS  OF  THF  MXETEENTH  CENTURY 


X 

2- 
J 

u 

Q 
< 
J 

X 

3- 

H 
< 

2 

O 


w 

< 

z 
z 

u 

H 
><; 

W 
X 
H 


■Si 


I 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  45  I 

worthy  efiectiveness,  but  the  task  called  into  service  the  most  extraordi- 
nary array  of  naval  vessels  the  world  has  ever  seen.  The  regular  war- 
ships of  the  United  States  were  entirely  too  few.  The  Government 
therefore  made  use  of  innumerable  merchant  ships,  fishing  boats,  yachts, 
river  steamers,  and  even  ordinary  ferry  boats.  This  motley  fleet  served 
to  maintain  the  blockade  and  to  reduce  various  Confederate  fortifications 
along  the  coast.  During  1861  the  forts  at  Hatteras  Inlet  and  at  Port 
Royal,  South  Carolina,  were  reduced  and  captured.  In  April  of  the  next 
year,  soon  after  the  battle  at  Pittsburg  Landing,  occurred  one  of  the 
greatest  naval  exploits  of  the  war.  At  that  time  the  Federal  fleet,  under 
the  command  of  Admiral  Farragut  and  Commodore  Porter,  forced  its 
way  past  the  forts  of  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  River,  captured  the 
great  city  of  New  Orleans  and  got  control  of  the  river  nearly  up  to 
Vicksburg.  At  the  same  time  the  fleet  of  gunboats  which  had  been 
constructed  on  the  Mississippi  and  Ohio  Rivers  opened  those  streams  to 
the  Union  forces  as  far  down  as  Memphis.  At  the  latter  point  a  large 
fleet  of  Confederate  gunboats  was  destroyed.  These  victories  gave  the 
Union  forces  control  of  the  entire  Mississippi  River  with  the  exception 
of  Vicksburg,  which  was  deemed  an  impregnable  fortress,  and  was 
commonly  called  the  Gibraltar  of  the  West. 

McCLELLAN'S  CAMPAIGN. 

In  the  spring  of  1862  General  McClellan  set  out  with  the  Army  of 
the  Potomac  to  capture  Richmond.  His  army  was  then  the  largest  and 
best  equipped  this  continent  had  ever  seen.  It  would  probably  have 
defeated  all  Confederate  forces  that  could  be  sent  against  it  had  not  its 
commander  suffered  from  over  caution.  McClellan's  chief  advance  was 
made  up  the  York  River.  A  part  of  his  army,  under  McDowell,  advanced 
from  Washington  towards  Richmond  by  way  of  Fredericksburg.  A 
third  division,  small  in  size,  under  Banks  and  Fremont,  was  posted  in 
the  Shenandoah  to  guard  against  a  Confederate  advance  upon  Washing- 
ton in  that  direction.  The  Confederate  commander  at  first  was  Joseph 
Johnston.  He  first  detained  McClellan  for  a  month  in  a  siege  of  York- 
town.  Then  he  retreated  toward  Richmond,  lured  McClellan's  army 
into  a  dangerous  position  on  both  sides  of  the  Chickahominy  River  and 
then  turned  fiercely  upon  it.     The  result  was  that  in  the  bloody  battle  of 

Fair    Oaks,   on    May  31st,    McClellan's    army   was    badly  defeated  and 

24 


452  STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

narrowly  escaped  destruction.  General  Johnston  was  seriously  wounded, 
and  General  Robert  E.  Lee  succeeded  him  as  the  chief  Confederate 
commander. 

At  about  the  same  time  the  famous  General  Thomas  J.  Jackson, 
popularly  known  as  "  Stonewall  "  Jackson,  made  a  dashing  raid  into  the 
Shenandoah  Valley,  overwhelmed  and  put  to  flight  the  small  Union 
army  there,  and  so  menaced  Washington  that  McDowell's  army  was 
hastily  recalled  to  defend  that  city.  This  enabled  Jackson  to  rejoin 
Lee  near  Richmond,  and  completed  the  success  of  the  Confederate 
campaign. 

McClellan  now  changed  his  base  from  the  York  to  the  James  River. 
While  he  was  doing  so  Lee  attacked  him  with  energy,  and  a  series  of 
desperate  battles  followed.  During  the  week  of  June  26th  to  July  1st. 
an  important  battle  was  fought  every  day,  McClellan  steadily  falling  back 
after  each  engagement.  His  total  losses  during  the  week  were  more 
than  15,000.  The  last  battle  of  this  series  was  that  of  Malvern  Mill. 
The  ground  on  which  the  Union  army  made  its  stand  was  admirably 
chosen  by  Colonel  Richard  Irwin,  and  was  strongly  defended.  The 
result  was  the  disastrous  repulse  of  the  Confederates  and  an  unqualified 
victory  for  the  Army  of  the  Potomac.  Had  McClellan  vigorously  prose- 
cuted his  advantage  he  might  have  crushed  Lee  and  captured  Richmond. 
But  he  procrastinated,  and  the  advantage  was  lost. 

THE  SECOND  BULL  RUN. 

Shortly  before  the  battle  of  Malvern  Hill,  McClellan  was  removed 
from  the  chief  command  of  the  Federal  armies,  and  that  command  was 
given  instead  to  General  Halleck,  who  had  gained  some  borrowed  repu- 
tation by  his  participation  in  the  victories  of  Grant  and  others  in  the 
West.  A  re-organization  of  the  Federal  armies  and  a  new  plan  of 
campaign  followed.  The  forces  in  Northern  Virginia  were  concentrated 
under  General  Pope,  and  McClellan  was  ordered  to  abandon  his  opera- 
tions against  Richmond  and  to  move  his  army  by  water  to  Aquia  Creek, 
where  it  was  to  join  General  Pope.  While  this  movement  was  being 
made  Lee  united  his  army  with  that  of  Stonewall  Jackson,  and  together 
they  attacked  Pope  at  Bull  Run  on  August  28th  and  30th.  The  Union 
army  was  utterly  defeated,  losing  more  than  14,000  men,  while  the 
Confederate  losses  were  about  10,000. 


STORY    OF   ONE    HUNDRED   YEARS.  453 

^,  ,  ANTIETAM. 

Lee  followed  up  this  victory  by  advancing  with  his  whole  army  into 
Maryland,  and  thus  threatening  the  cities  of  Washington  and  Baltimore. 
A  panic  prevailed  in  the  North.  All  available  forces  were  hastily  col- 
lected and  placed  under  McClellan's  command  and  sent  westward 
through  Maryland  to  head  off  Lee.  The  Confederate  commander  was 
disappointed  to  find  Maryland  by  no  means  friendly  to  him.  He  held 
himself  there  to  be  in  the  enemy's  country.  There  was  no  hope  of 
getting  Maryland  to  join  the  Confederacy,  so  he  determined  to  make  a 
bold  dash  to  capture  the  city  of  Washington.  He  first  sent  Stonewall 
Jackson  to  capture  Harper's  Ferry,  where  there  was  a  Union  force  of 
1 1,000  men  guarding  the  crossing  of  the  Potomac.  Jackson  took  the 
place,  captured  the  garrison  and  rejoined  Lee  before  McClellan  arrived. 
The  Union  and  Confederate  forces  at  last  came  together  on  September 
17th  at  the  little  village  of  Antietam,  Maryland.  Lee  occupied  a  strong 
position  with  about  50,000  veteran  soldiers.  McClellan  had  a  larger 
army,  numbering  about  80,000,  but  it  was  by  no  means  so  well  disciplined 
and  organized.  The  battle  was  desperately  contested,  and  ihe  losses 
amounted  to  more  than  25,000  men,  Lee  was  beaten,  though  not  put  to 
rout.  He  retired  leisurely,  however,  into  Virginia,  and  thus  his  first 
invasion  of  the  North  was  frustrated.  McClellan  was  not  blamed  for 
not  more  vigorously  following  up  the  advantage  he  had  gained,  and  early 
in  November  was  removed  from  his  command  of  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac,  and  was  succeeded  by  General  Burnside. 

EMANCIPATION. 

The  battle  of  Antietam,  indecisive  though  it  was  in  some  respects, 
marked  a  great  crisis  of  the  war.  We  have  said  that  President  Lincoln's 
original  intention  was  not  to  interfere  with  slavery  in  the  Southern  States 
unless  forced  to  do  so,  but  to  strive  simply  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
Union.  The  Antietam  campaign  convinced  him  that  a  change  of  policy 
was  necessary.  He  decided  to  issue  a  proclamation  setting  free  all 
slaves  in  the  rebellious  States.  The  Constitution  gave  him  no  authority 
to  do  this.  But  ample  warrant  for  such  action  was  found  in  the  sound 
principles  of  military  law.  "I  say,"  said  John  Ouincy  Adams  on  a 
memorable  occasion,  "that  the  military  authority  takes  for  the  time  the 
place  of  all  municipal  institutions.     Under  that  state  of  things  the  Presi- 


454  STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED   YEARS. 

dent  of  the  United  States,  as  Commander  of  the  Army,  has  power  to 
order  the  universal  emancipation  of  slaves."  Lincoln  recalled  that 
memorable  utterance,  and  acted  according  to  its  suggestion.  Imme- 
diately after  the  battle  of  Antietam  he  issued  the  immortal  Emancipation 
Proclamation.  In  this  he  announced  that  on  January  i,  1863,  in  all 
States  still  remaining  in  rebellion,  the  slaves  should  thenceforth  and  for- 
ever be  freed.  It  will  be  observed  that  this  did  not  apply  to  the  slaves 
which  were  still  held  in  some  of  the  loyal  States,  such  as  Kentucky, 
Maryland  and  Missouri.  It  was  evident,  however,  that  with  the  abolition 
of  slaver)'  in  the  South,  the  institution  would  soon  come  to  an  end  else- 
where. This  Proclamation  sounded,  therefore,  the  death-knell  of  human 
slavery  in  the  United  States. 

OPERATIONS  IN  THE  WEST. 

Other  incidents  of  1862  were  a  dreadful  outbreak  of  the  Sioux 
Indians  in  Minnesota  and  Iowa,  in  which  nearly  a  thousand  men,  women 
and  children  were  butchered ;  an  invasion  of  Kentucky  by  the  Con- 
federates under  General  Bragg,  starting  from  Chattanooga,  reaching 
Perryville,  and,  after  a  bloody  defeat,  retreating  to  Chattanooga  ;  victories 
by  the  Union  army,  under  General  Rosecrans,  at  luka  and  Corinth, 
Mississippi;  and  finally,  on  December  31st  and  January  ist  and  2d,  a 
great  battle  between  Rosecrans  and  Bragg  at  Stone  River,  in  which  more 
than  20,000  men  were  killed  and  wounded,  but  of  which  the  result  was 
indecisive,  though  the  Confederates  were  compelled  to  retire  from  the 
field. 

VICKSBURG. 

At  the  end  of  1862  the  Union  operations  at  Vicksburg  for  the  cap- 
ture of  that  stronghold  began.  General  Sherman  made  an  attack  upon 
the  bluffs  at  the  north  side  of  the  town  on  December  29th,  but  was  de- 
feated. All  through  the  winter  the  siege  of  Vicksburg  continued. 
General  Grant  tried  to.  send  his  armies  around  the  place  at  the  east,  but 
the  Confederates  cut  his  lines  of  communication  and  compelled  him  to 
retreat  to  avoid  starvation.  On  the  ist  of  February  Grant  took  his  army 
to  the  west  side  of  the  Mississippi  opposite  Vicksburg.  During  Feb- 
ruary and  March  he  tried,  by  digging  canals  and  deepening  channels,  to 
open  a  passageway  for  gunboats  to  pass  the  city  of  Vicksburg  without 
coming  within  range  of  the  Confederate  batteries.     These   efforts,  how- 


r 


c. 
c 
z 


X 

< 
oi 
O 

o 
z 

o 

X 

W 

X 
H 
ti. 
O 

ai 
O 
h 
Z 

w 
> 
z 

z" 

o 

in 

5 

u 

in 

<; 
o 

X 
H 

J. 
1^ 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  457 

ever,  proved  iruitless.  His  next  scheme  was  to  have  Sherman's  Division 
of  his  army  make  an  attack  upon  Vicksburg  and  thus  divert  attention 
from  the  river,  and  then  have  Porter's  fleet  of  gunboats  run  past  the  bat- 
teries and  get  below  Vicksburg,  where  they  could  enable  Grant's  main 
army  to  recross  the  river  below  the  city  and  make  an  attack  in  the  rear. 
At  the  same  time  Grant  sent  General  Grierson  through  the  eastern  part 
of  Mississippi,  making  a  brilliant  raid  and  inflicting  much  damage  upon 
the  Confederates. 

Grant  was  successful  in  his  scheme  for  getting  across  the  river  be- 
low Vicksburcr.  He  crossed  at  Bruinsbursj  and  defeated  the  Confederate 
army  at  Port  Gibson.  Thence  he  advanced  upon  Vicksburg  from  the 
south.  After  a  long  campaign,  along  and  near  the  Big  Black  River,  in 
which  Grant  was  uniformly  successful,  the  Confederate  army  under 
General  Pemberton  retired  into  Vicksburg,  and  that  place  was  closely 
besieged.  This  was  on  May  nth.  In  eleven  days  Grant  had  marched 
200  miles,  had  defeated  two  armies  in  five  battles,  had  captured  ninety 
cannon,  and  had  made  the  downfall  of  Vicksburg  certain. 

Two  attempts  to  take  Vicksburg  by  storm  followed,  but  were  unsuc- 
cessful. Then  Grant  settled  down  to  reduce  the  place  by  siege.  In  this 
he  was  successful.  On  July  4,  1S63,  General  Pemberton  was  compelled 
to  surrender  the  place  with  his  army  of  32,000  men,  and  the  Federals 
thus  gained  control  of  the  Mississippi  River  from  its  source  to  the  sea. 

CHANCELLORSVILLE. 

Further  east,  meanwhile,  great  deeds  of  arms  had  been  wrought. 
On  December  13,  1862,  General  Burnside  with  the  Army  of  the  Potomac, 
made  an  injudicious  assault  upon  Lee's  army  at  Fredericksburg,  where 
Lee's  army  occupied  a  position  of  great  strength.  The  Union  army  was 
defeated  with  a  loss  of  12,000  men.  Burnside  was  removed  from  com- 
mand and  "  Fighting  Joe  "  Hooker  succeeded  him.  Active  operations 
were  then  suspended  until  spring,  when  on  May  ist  to  4th  Hooker  at- 
tacked Lee  at  Chancellorsville.  Hooker  had  about  90,000  men,  and  Lee 
not  more  than  half  that  number.  But  Hooker  was  completely  out- 
generaled by  Lee  and  was  defeated  and  put  to  rout.  His  losses  were 
nearly  30,000  in  killed  and  wounded,  and  this  was  the  worst  defeat 
sustained  by  the  Union  army  in  the  whole  war.  The  Confederate 
army,  however,  sustained  an  irreparable  loss  in  the  death  of  Stonewall 


458  STOKY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

Jackson,   who  was    mortally  wounded    while    successfully    effecting  the 
decisive  manoeuvre  of  the  battle. 

GETTYSBURG. 

After  his  great  victory  at  Chancellorsville,  Lee  again  invaded  the 
North.  He  swept  triumphantly  across  Western  Maryland  into  Pennsyl- 
vania, threatening  not  only  Washington  and  Baltimore,  but  Philadelphia 
and  New  York.  General  Hooker  and  General  Halleck  quarreled,  and  the 
former  resigned  his  command.  General  George  Gordon  Meade  was  ap- 
pointed to  succeed  him.  Meantime  the  remnant  of  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac,  together  with  all  other  available  troops,  including  raw  levies 
from  the  North,  made  a  desperate  race  to  catch  up  with  Lee  and  check 
him  in  his  formidable  career.  Only  a  few  days  after  Meade's  appoint- 
ment as  commander  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  the  two  armies  came 
together  at  the  little  village  of  Gettysburg,  in  Southern  Pennsylvania. 
This  place  controlled  the  road  between  Lee's  army  and  the  Potomac 
River,  and  was,  theretore,  of  strategic  importance.  On  July  ist  two 
corps  of  the  Union  army,  under  Generals  Reynolds  and  Howard,  en- 
countered the  van  of  the  Confederate  army  under  General  A.  P.  Hill.  A 
severe  battle  ensued  in  which  the  Union  army  was  defeated.  General 
Reynolds  was  killed  and  his  troops  retreated.  The  Confederates  were  re- 
inforced by  General  Ewell  and  his  corps,  and  the  Union  army  was  also 
strengthened  by  the  arrival  of  General  Hancock  and  his  corps.  The  Union 
line  was  now  formed  on  the  crest  of  Cemetery  Ridge,  a  chain  of  small  hills 
south  of  the  village.  It  was  a  strong  position  and  Meade  hurried  up 
his  entire  army  to  hold  it.  On  the  next  day,  July  2d,  the  battle  was 
renewed.  Lee's  entire  army  had  arrived  and  confronted  the  Union 
forces.  It  occupied  Cemetery  Ridge,  a  line  of  small  hills  parallel  to 
that  on  which  the  Union  army  was  intrenched.  Lee  sent  General 
Longstreet  with  the  right  wing  of  the  Confederate  army  to  attack 
General  Sickles  on  the  two  hills  called  Round  Top  and  Little  Round 
Top.  After  a  desperate  fight  Sickles  was  compelled  to  retreat,  but  the 
main  position  on  the  hills  was  held  by  the  Union  forces.  At  the  other 
end  of  the  line  General  Ewell  attacked  the  Federal  position  on  Gulp's 
Hill,  which  was  held  by  General  Slocum.  Ewell  was  successful  in  cap- 
turing Culp's  Hill  and  spent  the  night  there,  but  at  daybreak  was 
compelled  to  retire. 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 


459 


Being  thus  baffled  in  botli  attempts  to  turn  the  Federal  flanks,  Lee 
decided,  on  the  third  day  of  the  battle,  July  3d,  to  make  a  grand  attack 
at  the  centre.  This  operation  began  with  a  tremendous  artillery  duel, 
which  lasted  two  hours.  Then  Lee  sent  Pickett's  Division  of  Lone- 
street's  corps,  numbering  15,000  infantrymen,  the  flower  of  the  Confed- 
erate army,  squarely  at  Hancock's  position  at  the  centre  of  the  Union 
lines.  It  was  one  of  the  most  splendid  spectacles  ever  seen  in  an  Ameri- 
can war.  The  Confederate  troops  moved  forward  as  smoothly  as  though  on 
parade,  though  the  Union  cannon  mowed  them  down  whole  companies  at 
a  time.  They  forced  their  way  across  the  valley  and  up  the  slope  of  Cem- 
etery Ridge.  They  forced  their  way  to  the  very  breastworks  and  sprang 
upon  them  to  bayonet  the  Union  gunners.  It  was  Lee's  supposition  that 
the  main  body  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  had  not  yet  arrived,  and  that 
behind  the  breastworks  would  be  found  only  raw  recruits.  But  the  Army 
of  the  Potomac  was  there.  It  stood  firm,  and  after  a  strusrale  unsur- 
passed  in  the  histor)'  of  war,  the  Confederate  troops  were  hurled  back  in 
utter  defeat.  At  the  same  time  a  furious  attempt  was  made  by  the  Con 
federate  cavalry  to  get  around  and  attack  the  Union  army  in  the  rear. 
This  was  met  and  baffled  by  a  counter  attack  of  the  Union  cavalry. 

Thus  ended  this  great  battle,  the  greatest  the  American  Continent 
has  seen,  and  one  of  the  greatest  the  world  has  ever  known.  About 
153,000  troops  were  engaged  on  both  sides,  the  Union  army  being 
slightly  the  larger.  The  total  losses  in  killed,  wounded  and  missing  were 
more  than  54,000,  or  considerably  more  than  one-third  of  all  the  forces 
engaged.  Lee  gathered  together  the  remains  of  his  army  and  retreated 
precipitately  back  into  Virginia.  Meade's  army  was  too  shattered  and 
worn  to  overtake  and  capture  him.  But  the  fate  of  the  Confederacy  was 
decided.  It  was  evident  that  no  Southern  army  could  ever  again  hope  to 
invade  the  North.  But  the  capacity  of  the  South  for  stubborn  resistance 
was    not   yet  exhausted. 

RIOTS    IN    NEW  YORK. 

To  meet  the  advance  of  Lee  into  Pennsylvania  not  enough  troops 
could  be  obtained  by  the  volunteer  system,  and  so  a  draft  was  ordered. 
This  measure  was  generally  unpopular.  In  New  York  City  it  gave  the 
criminal  classes  a  pretext  for  rioting.  On  July  13th  an  extensive  out- 
break occurred,  and  for  four  days  the  city  was  at  tlie  mercy  of  ruffians 


460  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

and  professional  criminals,  who  had  flocked  thither  from  all  parts  of  the 
countr)-.  The  situation  was  rendered  worse  by  the  fact  that  the  local 
militia  regiments  were  absent  from  the  city,  having  gone  to  aid  the  Army 
of  the  Potomac  in  Pennsylvania.  The  police  force  performed  miracles 
of  valor,  but  were  unable  to  cope  with  the  mob.  Many  buildings  were 
burned,  jewelry  stores  and  other  places  of  business,  as  well  as  innumer- 
able private  houses,  were  broken  open  and  plundered,  hundreds  of  ne- 
groes, including  women  and  children,  were  killed  by  hanging  and  burn- 
ing, and  the  whole  city  was  a  pandemonium  of  arson,  loot  and  murder. 
The  New  York  Seventh  Regiment  and  other  troops  hastened  back  to 
the  scene  and  quickly  restored  order  at  the  cost  of  the  lives  of  hundreds 
of  the  rioters. 

CHICKAMAUGA. 

The  great  victories  of  the  Union  armies  at  Gettysburg  and  Vicks- 
burg  were  followed  in  September  by  a  disastrous  defeat.  This  oc- 
curred in  Tennessee.  General  Rosecrans  compelled  the  Confederate 
general,  Bragg,  to  evacuate  Chattanooga.  Lee  then  sent  Longstreet  to 
assist  Bragg,  and  thus  reinforced,  Bragg  attacked  Rosecrans  at  Chick- 
amauga  on  September  19th  and  20th.  In  this  great  battle  about 
125,000  men  were  engaged,  and  nearly  40,000  were  killed  or  wounded. 
The  right  wing  of  the  Union  army  was  driven  from  the  field,  but  the 
left  wing,  commanded  by  the  illustrious  General  Thomas,  stubbornly  held 
its  ground  and  saved  the  Union  army  from  utter  rout.  Thomas'  de- 
fence of  his  position  at  Chickamauga  was  the  most  noteworthy  per- 
formance of  the  kind  in  the  whole  war,  and  has  probably  never  been 
surpassed  in  the  history  of  the  world. 

A  few  weeks  later  Rosecrans  was  removed  from  the  command  ol 
the  Army  of  the  Cumberland,  and  was  succeeded  by  General  Thomas. 
Sherman  also  came  up  from  Vicksburg  with  the  Army  of  the  Tennessee 
and  joined  him.  Grant  was  put  in  supreme  command  of  these  armies 
and  of  all  the  Union  forces  west  of  the  Allegheny  Mountains.  Hooker 
was  also  sent  thither  from  Virginia  with  reinforcements.  In  November  a 
great  battle  occurred,  or  rather  series  of  battles,  around  Chattanooga, 
including  the  famous  battle  "  above  the  clouds  "  on  Lookout  Mountain. 
These  operations  were  directed  by  the  four  greatest  generals  of  the 
Union  army.  Grant,  Thomas,  Sherman  and  Sheridan.  The  Confederates 
under  General  Bragg  were  completely  defeated. 


STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED   YEARS.  46 1 

GRANT  IN  VIRGINIA. 

In  the  spring  of  1864  General  Grant  was  made  Lieutenant-General, 
a  rank  which  had  previously  been  held  in  the  United  States  by  only 
Washington  and  Scott.  He  was  also  made  Commander-in-Chiet  of  the 
entire  Union  army.  He  made  his  headquarters  with  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac,  which  remained  under  General  Meade,  and  began  a  campaign 
in  Virginia,  not  to  capture  Richmond,  but  to  crush  General  Lee.  He 
advanced  squarely  against  Lee  on  the  road  from  Fredericksburg  to 
Richmond,  and  during  May  and  June,  1864,  fought  the  fearful  battles 
of  The  Wilderness,  Spottsylvania  and  Cold  Harbor.  In  these  engage- 
ments he  lost  a  total  of  64,000  men.  Lee's  losses  were  scarcely  as  large, 
but  were  really  more  serious,  since  the  South  had  a  far  smaller  popula- 
tion upon  which  to  draw  for  reinforcements.  From  Cold  Harbor  Grant 
advanced  to  Petersburg,  near  Richmond.  This  was  one  of  the  most 
strongly  fortified  places  in  all  Virginia,  and  there  Grant  was  held  at  bay 
by  Lee  until  the  spring  of  the  next  year. 

WINCHESTER. 

Meantime  Lee  sent  General  Early  up  the  Shenandoah  Valley  to 
menace  Washington.  He  hoped  thus  to  frighten  the  Union  Government 
into  recalling  Grant's  army  for  the  defence  of  that  city.  In  this  he  was 
disappointed.  General  Sheridan  was  sent  to  the  Shenandoah  to  deal 
with  Early.  On  October  19th,  while  Sheridan  was  at  Winchester,  on  his 
way  back  from  a  visit  to  Washington,  Early  suddenly  attacked  Sheridan's 
army  at  Cedar  Creek,  twenty  miles  away.  The  Union  army  was  utterly 
routed  and  driven  back  more  than  seven  miles.  Sheridan,  aroused  by 
the  sound  of  distant  cannon,  mounted  his  horse  and  galloped  hastily  all 
the  way  from  Winchester  until  he  met  his  retreating  army.  His  arrival 
inspired  the  troops  with  fresh  courage.  They  rallied,  turned  back,  and 
in  turn  put  Early  to  rout,  resting  that  night  in  the  very  camp  from  which 
they  had  been  driven  in  the  morning. 

SHERMAN'S  MARCH. 

While  Grant  thus  came  east  to  Virginia,  Sherman  started  south  from 
Chattanooga.  Bragg  had  been  superseded  in  the  command  of  the  Con- 
federate army  by  General  Johnston,  a  much  abler  man.  Johnston  was, 
however,  compelled    to  retreat    before  Sherman's  superior  force.     The 


4^2  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  VEARS. 

battles  of  Resaca,  Dallas  and  Kenesaw  Mountain  were  fought  in  suc- 
cession, with  total  losses  of  more  than  35,000  men.  Then  Sherman 
reached  Atlanta,  Georgia.  Johnston  was  now  superseded  by  Hood,  who 
made  two  desperate  attempts  to  fight  his  way  out  of  Atlanta.  It  was  in 
vain.  On  September  2d  Sherman  captured  Atlanta.  Hood  was  driven 
out  and  retreated  into  central  Tennessee,  hoping  Sherman  would  follow 
him  thither  and  relieve  Georgria  from  invasion.  But  Sherman  did  not  do 
so.  He  sent  a  part  of  his  army  back  under  General  Thomas  to  deal  with 
Hood,  and  for  himself  continued  his  operations  in  Georgia.  About  the 
middle  of  November  Sherman  set  out  from  Atlanta  with  an  army  of 
60,000  men.  His  destination  was  unknown,  and  for  a  time  was  a  puzzle 
to  both  South  and  North.  He  reached  the  sea  coast  of  Savannah  and 
captured  that  city  just  before  Christmas.  From  Atlanta  to  Savannah 
he  had  swept  clear  of  all  supplies  a  belt  of  country  sixty  miles  in  width. 

THOMAS  IN  TENNESSEE. 

General  Thomas  meantime  marched  up  into  Tennessee  to  deal  with 
Hood.  The  first  battle  was  fought  at  Franklin,  Tennessee,  on  November 
30th,  between  Schofield  and  Hood.  It  resulted  in  the  repulse  of  Hood, 
with  heavy  losses  on  both  sides.  Then  Thomas  came  up  with  his  force 
and  met  Hood  at  Nashville  on  December  15th.  A  great  battle  was 
fought,  lasting  two  days.  More  than  100,000  men  were  engaged,  and 
the  losses  were  heavy  on  both  sides.  Hood's  losses  were  more  than 
15,000  men,  and  his  army  was  utterly  defeated  and  scattered. 

NAVAL  OPERATIONS. 

Some  naval  operations  must  now  be  briefly  noted.  Among  all  the 
Confederate  privateers  fitted  out  in  England  the  most  famous  was  the 
"Alabama,"  commanded  by  Captain  Raphael  Semmes.  This  famous  vessel 
cruised  about  the  world  destroying  hundreds  of  American  vessels  and 
millions  of  dollars' worth  of  property.  She  was  at  last  trapped  in  the 
harbor  of  Cherbourg,  France,  by  the  United  States  ship  "  Kearsarge," 
commanded  by  Captain  Winslow.  A  naval  duel  was  fought  between 
them  just  outside  of  Cherbourg  harbor,  with  the  result  that  the  "Alabama" 
was  destroyed.     Captain  Semmes  escaped  to  England. 

An  attack  was  made  upon  the  Confederate  forts  and  fleet  in  Mobile 
Bay  by  a  Union  fleet  under  the  command  of  Admiral  Farragut.    This  was 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRKD  YEARS.  463 

probably  the  largest  and  most  fiercely  contested  naval  battle  of  the  war 
rhe  Confederates  employed  submarine  torpedoes  and  a  number  of  heavy 
ironclad  rams.  Farragut,  standing  in  the  rigging  of  his  flagship,  the 
"  Hartford,"  directed  the  Union  attack  and  won  a  complete  victory. 

END  OF  THE  WAR. 

On  capturing  Savannah,  Sherman  turned  northward  and  marched 
through  South  and  North  Carolina  to  join  Grant  and  end  the  war.  At 
Goldsborough  he  again  encountered  General  Johnston  and  defeated  him 
on  March  19th.  Lee  strove  to  effect  a  junction  with  Johnston,  abandon- 
ing Richmond  to  its  fate.  Sheridan  prevented  this  in  the  battle  of  Five 
Forks  on  April  ist.  The  next  day  the  Confederates  were  forced  to 
abandon  Petersburg.  Then  the  Confederate  Government  fled  from  Rich- 
mond,  and  Lee  was  cornered  at  Appomatox  Court  House.  There,  on 
April  9,  1865,  he  surrendered  the  remnant  of  his  army  to  General  Grant 
Two  weeks  later  Johnston  surrendered  to  Sherman.  On  May  lotli 
Jefferson  Davis  was  captured  in  Georgia.  A  few  minor  operations 
closed  the  war. 

ASSASSINATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

The  great  rejoicings  of  the  nation  at  the  fall  of  Richmond  and  the 
surrender  of  Lee  were  quickly  turned  into  mourning.  On  the  evening 
of  April  14th  President  Lincoln  was  assassinated  as  he  sat  in  a  theatre  in 
Washington,  by  John  Wilkes  Booth,  an  actor,  of  strong  Confederate 
sympathies,  and  died  early  the  next  morning.  At  the  same  time  efforts 
were  made  to  assassinate  Secretary  Seward  and  other  members  of  the 
Government,  but  these  were,  happily,  unsuccessful.  Booth  was  soon 
hunted  down  by  United   States   soldiers   and   shot  while  resisting  arrest. 

PRESIDENT  JOHNSON. 

Lincoln  had  been  re-elected  President  in  November,  1864,  and  had 
begun  his  second  term  on  March  4,  1865.  The  Vice-President  chosen 
with  him  was  Andrew  Johnson,  of  Tennessee,  who  now  became  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States.  President  Johnson,  unfortunately,  lacked 
Lincoln's  rare  tact  and  discretion,  and  soon  came  into  direct  conflict  with 
the  Republican  majority  in  Congress.  He  was  anxious  to  restore  State 
Governments  in  the  South  as  rapidly  as  possible.  Congress  insisted, 
however,  upon  delay.     A  thirteenth  amendment  to  the  Constitution  was 


464  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

adopted,  forever  abolishing  slavery,  the  new  State  of  Nevada  being  ad- 
mitted to  the  Union  largely  for  the  sake  of  securing  its  vote  for  that 
amendment.  A  fourteenth  amendment  was  proposed,  the  effect  of  which 
would  be  to  deprive  any  State  of  a  share  of  its  representation  in  Con- 
gress proportionate  to  the  share  of  the  negro  vote  which  was  suppressed 
by  the  State  Government.  At  the  same  time  a  civil  rights  bill  was 
adopted  by  Congress  guaranteeing  negroes  the  rights  of  citizenship. 
Under  such  conditions  all  the  Southern  States  except  Virginia,  Missis- 
sippi and  Texas  were  "reconstructed"  and  re-admitted  to  the  Union. 
The  new  State  of  Nebraska  was  also  organized  and  admitted. 

IMPEACHMENT. 

President  Johnson  opposed  all  these  acts  of  Congress,  but  they  were 
passed  over  his  veto.  Finally  an  act  was  passed  forbidding  him  to  re- 
move any  Federal  officer  from  his  place  without  the  consent  of  the  Sen- 
ate. President  Johnson  defied  and  violated  this  law  by  undertaking  to 
remove  Mr.  Stanton,  the  Secretary  of  War.  Thereupon  the  House  of 
Representatives  impeached  him  before  the  Senate  for  high  crimes  and 
misdemeanors.  He  was  brought  to  trial  before  the  Senate,  the  Chief 
Justice  of  the  United  States,  Salmon  P.  Chase,  presiding.  A  two-thirds 
vote  was  necessary  for  his  conviction.  The  vote  was  taken  on  May  16, 
1868,  and  it  stood  35  for  conviction  and  19  for  acquittal.  He  was  there- 
fore saved  from  impeachment  by  one  vote.  Seven  of  those  who  voted  for 
acquittal  were  Republicans. 

The  fourteenth  amendment  to  the  constitution,  already  referred  to, 
was  adopted,  and  so  was  a  fifteenth,  providing  that  no  discrimination 
should  be  made  against  citizens  on  account  of  race,  color,  or  previous 
condition  of  servitude. 

In  October,  1867,  the  United  States  Government  purchased  from 
Russia  the  vast  territory  of  Alaska  for  the  sum  of  ^7, 000,000.  This  en- 
terprise, for  which  Secretary  Seward  was  responsible,  was  ridiculed  at  the 
time  as  a  waste  of  money  in  purchasing  a  frozen  wilderness.  Subse- 
quent developments  have  shown  it  to  have  been  a  wise  and  profitable  act 
of  statesmanship. 

In  the  fall  of  1 868  General  U.  S.  Grant  was  elected  President  of  the 
United  States  by  an  overwhelming  majority  against  Horatio  Seymour, 
his  democratic  opponent. 


OS 

T 


m'i^ 


md 


fMi:-  ■-'■' 


Ml* 


.■-V  'ii-  ^ 


/' :'  ■'7>:- ^^^'l'^^ 


■iJ'- 


> 


o 

Q 

2 

-4 

o 

3 
as 

a 

o 

z 

o 

p 
u 
J 

Pl, 

S 

o 

u 


CHAPTER  XXXV. 


Death  of   Prince   Albert — Second   Schleswig-Holstein   War — The   Prusso- 

Austrian   Invasion  —  Prussia   Takes  the   Le&d  —  The   Prusso- Austrian 

War — End  of  the  War  and   Terms  of  Peace — Austro-Hungarian 

Reorganization  —  The  Rise  of  Italy — Garibaldi  —  Maximilian's 

Short-Lived   Empire  —  Revolution  in   Spain  —  The   Poles 

Finally  Crushed — The  Greek  Revolution — Turkey — 

The   Taipings  —  Cochin-China. 


THE  era  beginning  with  1861  was  a  momentous  one  in  Europe. 
It  opened  sadly  for  England,  the  death  of  Prince  Albert,  husband 
of  Queen  Victoria,  occurring  at  the  end  of  1861,  and  the  civil 
war  in  the  United  States  having  a  disastrous  effect  upon  English 
trade  and  industry.  In  1865-7  England  was  greatly  and  tragically  dis- 
turbed by  the  Fenian  conspiracies,  which,  originating  in  Ireland,  extended 
into  England  and  Canada,  and  caused  an  armed  invasion  of  the  latter 
colony  by  a  band  of  desperadoes  from  the  United  States.  In  1864  work 
was  begun  on  the  organization  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  and  in  1867 
it  was  completed,  and  the  various  provinces  were  welded  into  a  nation. 
The  Ionian  Islands,  which  had  long  been  under  British  protection  and 
administration,  were  transferred  to  Greek  sovereignty  in  1864.  In  1867-8 
occurred  the  British  war  with  Abyssinia,  in  which  a  British  army  under 
Sir  Robert  Napier,  afterward  Lord  Napier  of  Magdala,  invaded  Abys- 
sinia, stormed  the  capital,  Magdala,  liberated  Englishmen  from  prison, 
and  deposed  the  king  without  the  loss  of  a  single  man. 

SECOND    SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN    WAR. 

Conspicuous  among  the  great  events  of  these  years  was  the  reopen- 
ing of  the  Schleswig-Holstein  question,  which  was  Otto  von  Bismarck's 
first  step  toward  the  aggrandizement  of  Prussia  and  the  creation  ot  the 
new  German  Empire. 

The  treaty  of  London  (1852)  had  guaranteed  the  unity  of  the  Danish 
monarchy  and  promised  the  succession  to  Christian  ot  Glucksburg,  but 

467 


^68  STORY    OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

it  had  failed  to  satisfy  the  national  aspirations  of  the  duchies.  The  Ger- 
man Confederation,  or  Bund,  which  had  never  accepted  the  London 
treaty,  was  involved  in  constant  disputes  with  Denmark  about  the  details 
of  the  constitution  which  Frederick  VII  had  issued  in  1855.  A  strong 
Danish  party  in  Copenhagen  exerted  its  influence  over  the  king  to  pre- 
vent any  concessions  being  made  to  Germany,  and  at  last,  in  1863,  the 
Bund  determined  to  send  an  "army  of  execution"  into  the  duchies.  But 
Denmark  was  encouraged  to  resist  by  the  marriage  of  Christian  of  Glucks- 
buror's  daughter,  Alexandria,  with  the  Prince  of  Wales  (March  10,  1863), 
which  seemed  likely  to  secure  the  support  of  England. 

At  this  critical  moment  Frederick  VII  died,  and  Christian  of  Glucks- 
bure  ascended  the  throne  as  Christian  IX.  But  Frederick  of  Augusten- 
burg  seized  the  opportunity  to  revive  the  claim  to  the  duchies  which  his 
father  had  been  compelled  to  renounce  after  the  treaty  of  London.  He 
could  rely  upon  the  sympathy  of  the  Bund  and  the  enthusiastic  support 
of  the  Holsteiners.  In  December,  1863,  the  army  of  the  Bund  entered 
Holstein  and  occupied  the  duchy  without  any  opposition  from  the  Danes. 
The  Duke  of  Augustenburg  was  proclaimed  king  as  Frederick  VIII, 
though  he  left  the  administration  to  the  commissioners  of  the  Bund. 

THE   PRUSSO-AUSTRIAN    INVASION. 

But  matters  were  unexpectedly  complicated  by  the  intervention  of 
Austria  and  Prussia.  The  two  powers  had  been  partners  to  the  treaty 
of  London,  and  could  not  therefore  adopt  the  same  attitude  as  the  Bund, 
but  they  were  determined  to  have  a  decisive  voice  in  the  setdement  of  a 
question  which  was  so  vitally  important  to  Germany.  The  Prussian 
ministry  had  been  headed  since  1862  by  Bismarck,  who  exercised  a  sort 
of  fascinadon  over  the  Austrian  minister  Rechberg.  Germany  was  as- 
tounded to  see  the  two  rival  States  acting  in  apparendy  complete  con- 
cord. Regardless  of  the  protests  of  England,  the  combined  armies 
marched  through  Holstein  to  Schleswig,  which  they  determined  to  occupy 
as  a  hostage  until  Christian  IX  should  agree  to  a  satisfactory  setdement. 
The  Danes  had  not  defended  Holstein,  which  was  legally  a  member  of 
the  Bund,  but  they  were  resolved  to  hold  out  in  Schleswig,  which  had  no 
such  connection  with  Germany,  and  which  contained  a  large  Danish  popu- 
lation. But  the  superiority  of  the  invading  forces  was  too  overwhelming. 
The  Danes  had  to  retire  from  their  boasted  fortificadon,  the  Dannewirke 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  469 

(February  6th),  their  obstinate  defence  of  Duppel  proved  unavailing, 
and  Fredericia  surrendered   (April   28th). 

An  armistice  was  now  concluded  while  negotiations  were  carried  on 
in  a  conference  at  London  presided  over  by  Lord  John  Russell.  The 
Bund  demanded  the  complete  severance  of  the  duchies  from  Denmark, 
under  the  Duke  of  Augustenburg.  Austria  and  Prussia,  on  the  other 
hand,  were  willing  to  allow  the  "personal  union"  under  the  Danish 
crown  to  continue  on  condition  that  the  duchies  should  receive  a  sepa- 
rate constitution.  England,  which  had  hitherto  adhered  firmly  to  the 
treaty  of  London,  at  last  admitted  that  concessions  must  be  made  to 
Germany,  and  proposed  a  division  of  Schleswig  into  a  Danish  and  a 
German  half  but  no  agreement  could  be  come  to  about  the  dividing, 
line,  and  the  negotiations  were  broken  off.  The  Austro-Prussian  army 
renewed  the  war  and  occupied  the  whole  peninsula  of  Jutland. 

Christian  IX,  unable  to  resist  any  longer  and  bitterly  disappointed 
at  the  failure  of  English  support,  concluded  the  treaty  of  Vienna  (Octo- 
ber 30,  1864).  No  stipulation  was  made  as  to  the  future  fate  ot  the 
duchies,  which  were  simply  ceded  to  Austria  and  Prussia,  and  the  king 
pledged  himself  to  accept  any  arrangement  that  might  commend  itself 
to  the  two  powers.  The  troops  of  the  Bund  evacuated  Holstein  in 
December,  and  the  Duke  of  Augustenburg  discovered  that  his  chances 
of  the  succession  were  as  remote  as  ever. 

PRUSSIA  take:s  the  lead. 

It  was  evident  that  the  relations  ot  Olmutz  had  been  reversed,  and 
that  in  the  recent  transactions  Prussia  had  led  and  Austria  had  followed. 
Bismarck  was  determined  to  maintain  this  position  and  to  utilize  the 
ceded  duchies  in  the  interests  of  Prussia.  Ever  since  his  accession  to 
power  he  had  set  himself  to  increase  the  military  resources  of  his  coun- 
try, and  had  not  hesitated  to  avow  his  conviction  that  "blood  and  iron  " 
would  prove  more  effective  instruments  in  the  settlement  of  German 
difficulties  than  the  speeches  and  votes  which  had  failed  so  lamentably 
in  1849.  He  was  encouraged  in  his  aggressive  attitude  by  the  domestic 
troubles  of  Austria.  Hungary  and  Venetia  were  on  the  verge  of  revolt, 
and  all  the  non-German  provinces  were  discontented.  To  conciliate 
them,  the  government  suspended  the  constitution  of  1861  and  restored 
the  old   system   of   provincial    diets.     But  this   measure    alienated   the 


470  STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

German  population  of  Austria  proper  and  failed  to  satisfy  the  Slavs, 
Magyars  and  Italians.  Under  these  circumstances  it  was  difficult  for 
Austria  to  oppose  a  resolute  opposition  to  the  designs  of  Prussia.  The 
lesser  German  States  tried  in  vain  to  obtain  a  voice  in  the  final  settle- 
ment of  the  duchies.  Some  supported  the  Duke  of  Augustenburg, 
(Others  proposed  that  the  choice  of  a  ruler  should  be  submitted  to  the 
free  choice  of  the  inhabitants.  Bismarck  received  all  these  suggestions 
with  contemptuous  silence,  and  continued  to  treat  the  matter  as  a  private 
affair  of  the  two  great  powers. 

At  Gastein  a  convention  was  made  (August  14,  1865),  by  which 
Austria  undertook  to  administer  Holstein,  and  Prussia  Schleswig,  while 
the  small  duchy  of  Lauenburg  was  sold  to  Prussia  for  2,500,000  Danish 
thalers.  The  port  of  Kiel  was  occupied  by  Prussia,  which  at  once  com- 
menced the  erection  of  fortifications.  The  convention  of  Gastein  was 
Bismarck's  revenue  for  the  humiliation  of  Prussia  at  Olmutz.  But  it  was 
evident  that  the  arrangement  could  only  be  temporary,  and  that  the  rela- 
tions of  the  two  powers  in  the  duchies  and  in  Germany  could  only  be  set- 
tled by  war.  On  June  i,  Austria  announced  that  the  question  of  Schles- 
wig-Holstein  should  be  submitted  to  the  Bundestag,  and  that  a  meeting 
of  the  estates  of  Holstein  should  be  summoned  to  declare  the  wishes  of 
that  province.  Ten  days  later  a  formal  accusation  was  brought  against 
Prussia  of  violating  the  convention  of  Gastein,  and  the  mobilization  of 
the  troops  of  the  Bund  was  demanded.  Bismarck  responded  by  bring- 
ino-  forward  his  proposal  for  a  new  constitution  of  the  Bund,  which  was 
to  be  divided  into  a  northern  federation  under  Prussia  and  a  southern 
under  Bavaria,  while  Austria  was  to  be  excluded  altogether.  Manteuffel 
was  ordered  to  occupy  Holstein  if  the  estates  met,  and  he  obeyed  the 
order  on  June  8th.  The  Austrian  toops  were  too  weak  to  resist,  and 
the  duchy  was  annexed  to  Schleswig  under  Prussian  rule. 

THE    PRUSSO-AUSTRIAN    WAR. 

On  June  14,  the  Bundestag,  by  nine  votes  to  six,  accepted  the 
Austrian  demand  for  the  mobilization  of  the  troops.  The  Prussian  rep- 
resentative at  once  declared  that  this  resolution  was  a  breach  of  the 
constitution  of  18 15,  pronounced  the  dissolution  of  the  Bund,  and  quitted 
the  assembly.  War  was  declared  against  Saxony,  Hanover  and  Hesse- 
Cassel,  which  had  supported  Austria, 


1884— GEN.  GORDON  ON  THE  ROAD  TO  KHA.RTOUM 


STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS.  473 

The  general  expectation  in  Europe  was  that  the  war,  which  broke 
out  on  June  15,  would  be  a  long  and  desperate  struggle,  in  which  the 
superior  resources  of  Austria  would  secure  an  ultimate  victory.  But 
these  anticipations  were  completely  falsified  by  the  event.  The  Prussian 
troops  were  better  organized  than  any  others  in  Europe,  and  they  were 
armed  with  the  needle-gun,  which  enabled  them  to  fire  four  or  five  times 
as  fast  as  their  opponents.  On  the  other  hand,  Austria  was  in  a  hope- 
less financial  position,  its  armies  were  composed  of  various  nationalities, 
it  had  to  send  more  than  150,000  men  to  defend  Venetia  against  the 
Italians,  and  it  had  no  general  to  be  compared  with  the  Prussian  com- 
mander-in-chief, Von  Moltke.  In  every  engagement  the  Prussians  gained 
conspicuous  successes.  Hesse-Cassel  and  Saxony  were  occupied  with- 
out opposition.  The  Hanoverian  army,  after  being  defeated  at  Langen- 
salza,  was  compelled  to  capitulate  (June  29).  It  was  in  Bohemia  that 
the  main  armies  of  Austria  and  Prussia  came  into  collision.  After  a 
series  of  smaller  engagements  the  great  battle  was  fought  on  July  3  at 
Sadowa  (or  Koniggratz),  where  the  Austrians  were  completely  defeated. 

END  OF  THE  WAR  AND  TERMS   OF   PEACE. 

On  July  26  an  armistice  was  concluded  at  Nikolsburg,  by  which 
Austria  agreed  to  withdraw  from  the  Bund,  to  renounce  all  claims  in 
Schleswig  and  Holstein,  to  recognize  the  new  constitution  which  Prussia 
was  to  arrange  for  Germany,  and  to  cede  Venetia  to  Italy.  On  August 
23  the  preliminaries  of  Nikolsburg  were  confirmed  by  the  peace  oi 
Prague,  and  Prussia  undertook  to  restore  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  and 
to  transfer  northern  Schleswig  to  Denmark,  if  the  inhabitants  expressed  a 
wish  for  such  a  transfer.  The  latter  provision  was  wholly  evaded,  and 
though  the  former  was  fulfilled,  it  was  on  such  hard  conditions  that 
Saxony  became  little  more  than  a  vassal  State  of  Prussia.  The  two 
provinces  which  had  been  occupied,  Hanover  and  Hesse-Cassel,  together 
with  Schleswig-Holstein,  Nassau,  and  Frankfort,  were  to  remain  in  the 
possession  of  Prussia. 

Prussia  now  set  to  work  to  draw  up  the  plan  of  a  North  German 
Confederation,  to  include  all  States  to  the  north  of  the  Main.  Saxony, 
the  only  powerful  State,  was  unable,  in  existing  circumstances,  to  make 
any  opposition.  The  scheme  was  first  elaborated  in  a  conference  of 
plenipotentiaries  of  the  various  governments,  and  was  then  submitted  to 

25 


474  STORY  OF  ONE  hundrp:d  years. 

an  assembly  chosen  by  universal  suffrage,  which  sat  in  Berlin  from  Feb- 
ruary 24  to  April  17,  1867.  The  executive  government  was  entrusted 
to  the  Prussian  King  as  hereditary  President  and  General  of  the  Con- 
federation. He  was  to  be  assisted  by  a  Federal  Council  (Bundesrath), 
which  was  to  be  presided  over  by  a  Chancellor  appointed  by  Prussia. 
Legislation  was  to  be  in  the  hands  of  a  Reichstag,  the  deputies  to  which 
were  to  be  chosen  by  direct  suffrage.  Contributions  to  the  common 
military  expenditure  were  to  be  regulated  by  the  number  of  soldiers  which 
each  State  supplied  for  the  federal  army.  Military  service  was  organ- 
ized on  the  Prussian  system,  and  was  made  compulsory  on  every  citizen 
over  seventeen  years  of  age.  Bismarck  was  appointed  to  be  the  first 
Chancellor  of  the  Confederation.  With  the  chief  States  of  southern 
Germany,  Prussia  was  connected  by  the  Zollverein,  and  special  treaties 
were  concluded  with  Bavaria,  Wurtemberg  and  Baden,  by  which  their 
territories  were  guaranteed,  and  their  armies  were  placed  at  the  dis- 
posal of  Prussia  in  case  of  war.  Thus  the  whole  of  Germany,  with  the 
exception  of  Austria,  became  practically  subject  to  Prussian  sovereignty. 

AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN    RE^-ORGANIZATION. 

Austria  had  been  taught  by  the  disasters  of  the  war  to  realize  how 
fatal  to  the  Empire  were  the  discontent  and  disunion  of  the  subject  popu- 
lations. Venetia  was  resigned  almost  with  cheerfulness,  and  a  serious 
effort  was  made  to  pacify  Hungary.  The  work  of  conciliation  was 
carried  out  by  Count  Beust,  who  had  recently  been  Minister  to  Saxony, 
but  had  been  compelled  to  quit  that  kingdom  by  the  enmity  of  Prussia. 
The  government  found  it  necessary  to  restore  the  old  system  of  dualism. 
Hungary  received  a  Ministry  and  a  Diet  of  its  own,  while  another  Diet 
and  Ministry  were  created  for  the  Provinces  west  of  the  Leitha.  Joint 
delegations  were  to  be  appointed  by  the  two  Diets  for  the  consideration 
of  imperial  business,  and  there  were  to  be  three  common  Ministers,  for 
finance,  war,  and  foreign  affairs.  This  constitution,  with  improvements 
in  detail,  has  been  preserved  to  the  present  day. 

THE  RISE  OF  ITALY. 

In  Italy  the  Seven  Weeks'  War  had  produced  important  results. 
Before  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  Austria  had  attempted  to  buy  off 
Italian  hostility  by  offering  the  cession  of  Venetia,  but  Victor  Emanuel 


STORY    OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS.  475 

had  preferred  to  adhere  to  his  treaty  with  Prussia.  As  soon  as  the  war 
began  in  Germany  the  ItaHan  forces  advanced  towards  the  Quadrilateral. 
They  were  divided  into  two  armies,  one  of  which,  under  Cialdini,  was  to 
cross  the  Po  at  Ferrara,  and  to  cut  the  line  of  communication  between 
Venice  and  Verona,  while  the  other,  under  the  King  and  La  Marmora, 
was  to  invest  the  fortresses.  The  plan  of  the  campaign  was  based  on 
the  belief  that  the  Austrians  would  stand  on  the  defensive,  and  all  calcu- 
lations were  upset  when  the  Archduke  Albert  quitted  his  position  and 
attacked  the  Italians.  At  Custozza  an  obstinate  battle  was  fought 
(June  24th),  and  after  twelve  hours'  fighting  the  Italian  army  was  forced 
to  retire  to  the  Mincio.  In  July  the  Italian  fleet  was  almost  destroyed 
by  the  Austrians  in  the  Adriatic,  near  the  Island  of  Lissa.  Before  an 
opportunity  was  offered  of  retrieving  these  mortifying  disasters  the  news 
came  that  the  German  war  had  been  terminated  at  Nikolsburg,  and  that 
Venetia  was  offered  for  the  acceptance  of  Italy. 

It  was  a  great  blow  to  Italian  pride  to  have  to  receive  the  coveted 
province  at  the  hands  of  an  ally  instead  of  winning  it  by  the  prowess  of 
the  national  arms.  But  Victor  Emanuel  realized  that  it  was  not  the 
time  for  excessive  punctiliousness,  and  accepted  the  cession  of  Venetia 
by  the  treaty  of  Vienna  (October  T,d).  The  usual  plebiscite  was  almost 
unanimous  in  favor  of  annexation,  and  in  November  the  Kino-  was  re- 
ceived  with  enthusiasm  in  Venice.  Austria  now  possessed  no  territory 
that  could  be  called  Italian  except  Trieste  and  the  small  district  of  the 
Trentino.  It  was  just  at  this  time  that  the  evacuation  of  Rome  by  the 
French  was  completed  in  accordance  with  the  terms  of  the  September 
Convention.  The  great  work  of  freeing  Italy  from  the  foreigners  seemed 
for  the  moment  to  be  accomplished.  But  one  grievance  still  remained, 
the  independent  rule  of  the  Pope  in  Rome  and  the  Patrimony,  and  this 
was  protected  by  the  agreement  with  France.  The  Ministr)-  of  Rattazzi 
believed  that  Rome  could  be  obtained  in  the  same  way  as  Cavour  had 
obtained  the  Two  Sicilies. 

GARIBALDI. 

Garibaldi,  the  Liberator  of  Italy,  had  sought,  in  1862,  to  set  Rome 
free  from  the  rule  of  the  Pope.  He  led  an  expedition  against  that  city, 
which  met  with  some  success.  But  he  was  finally  vanquished  by  the 
French  garrison  of  Rome  at  Aspromonte,  and  was  taken  prisoner.  He 
was  quickly  liberated,  however,  in  deference  to  universal  sentiment,  and 


476  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

was  sent  to  live  on  his  island-farm  of  Caprera.  There  he  remained  until 
1867,  when  he  left  Caprera  and  led  another  expedition  against  Rome. 
He  met  with  victory  at  Monte  Rotondo,  but  Napoleon  III  at  once  de- 
spatched a  new  body  of  French  troops  to  defend  the  city  which  had  just 
been  evacuated.  At  Mentana  (November  3,  1867)  Garibaldi's  raw 
levies  were  utterly  routed  by  the  French,  and  the  occupation  of  Rome 
was  resumed  for  an  indefinite  period. 

MAXIMILIAN'S   SHORT-LIVED   EMPIRE. 

In  no  country  was  the  result  of  the  Austro-Prussian  War  such  an 
unwelcome  surprise  as  in  France.  Napoleon  III  was  humiliated  at  this 
time  by  events  in  Mexico.  In  1861  France,  England  and  Spain  had 
agreed  to  send  a  joint  expedition  to  demand  satisfaction  for  injuries 
inflicted  on  their  subjects  by  Juarez,  the  head  of  the  Mexican  Republic. 
The  two  latter  powers  withdrew  their  forces  when  the  object  of  the  treaty 
had  been  attained.  But  the  French  Emperor  conceived  the  chimerical 
project  of  forming  a  grand  empire  of  the  Latin  race  in  Mexico,  which 
should  counterbalance  the  power  of  the  United  States.  He  ordered  his 
troops  to  conquer  Mexico,  which  was  achieved  in  1863,  and  he  offered 
the  sovereignty  tothe  Austrian  Archduke,  Maximilian,  who  accepted  it  in 
1864.  But  Maximilian  quarreled  with  the  French  commander,  Bazaine; 
the  United  States  threatened  to  make  war  on  the  new  empire,  and 
Napoleon  found  the  expense  of  the  occupation  a  serious  embarrassment. 
In  1866  the  French  troops  were  withdrawn,  and  the  result  was  that  the 
Archduke  was  shot  by  Mexican  rebels  in  the  next  year.  Napoleon  III 
now  endeavored  to  form  a  close  alliance  with  Austria,  and  in  August, 
1867,  he  paid  a  formal  visit  to  the  Emperor,  Francis  Joseph,  at  Salzburg. 
The  visit  was  nominally  one  of  condolence  on  the  fate  of  the  Archduke, 
Maximilian,  but  contemporary  opinion  persisted  in  attributing  to  it  a 
political  importance  which  it  may  not  have  possessed.  No  important  re- 
sults followed  the  interview,  but  it  was  certain  that  France  would  seize 
the  first  opportunity  to  measure  its  strength  against  the  Northern  State 
which  had  made  such  a  sudden  stride  towards  the  leadership  in  Europe. 

REVOLUTION    IN   SPAIN. 

It  would  be  tedious  to  narrate  in  detail  the  domestic  history  of  Spain 
under  Isabella  of  Bourbon.     The  Queen  sought  to  cloak  the  dissolute- 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  477 

ness  of  her  private  life  by  a  superstitious  devotion  to  religion  and  the 
church,  and  her  personal  sympathies  were  on  the  side  of  the  clerical  and 
reactionary  party.  But  occasionally  the  progresistas  and  moderados 
forced  themselves  into  office,  though  their  jealous  rivalry  prevented  them 
from  maintaining  the  power  to  which  their  numbers  entitled  them.  At 
last,  in  1866,  Isabella  was  induced  to  take  energetic  measures  against  the 
opposition.  Narvaez  was  appointed  Chief  Minister,  and  the  most  promi- 
nent liberals,  O'Donnell,  Serrano  and  Prim,  sought  safety  in  exile.  The 
Cortes  was  dissolved,  and  many  of  the  Deputies,  including  the  President, 
Rosas,  were  transported  to  the  Canary  Islands.  A  royalist  reign  of 
terror  was  established  in  Spain,  and  was  continued  after  the  death  of 
Narvaez  (April  1868)  by  his  successor,  Gonzalez  Bravo.  But  the  Span- 
iards were  completely  alienated  from  the  Bourbon  rule.  They  resented 
the  scandals  of  the  Court  and  the  despotism  of  the  contemptible  camarilla 
of  priests  and  courtiers  who  surrounded  the  Queen.  The  various  sec- 
tions of  the  Liberal  party  were  driven  into  union  by  their  common  danger. 
In  September,  1868,  Prim  and  Serrano  returned  to  Spain,  raised  the 
standard  of  revolt,  and  offered  the  people  the  bribe  of  universal  suffrage. 
The  revolution  was  promptly  effected,  and  Isabella  fled  to  France. 

THE   POLES    FINALLY   CRUSHED. 

The  liberal  policy  of  the  new  Czar  seems  to  have  excited  great 
hopes  among  the  Poles,  and  their  disappointment  gave  rise  to  a  formida- 
ble insurrection  in  1863.  For  two  years  a  desperate  guerilla  warfare 
was  carried  on  against  the  Russian  troops,  but  in  the  end  order  and  dis- 
cipline carried  the  day  against  ill  organized  heroism.  Prussia,  which  had 
never  sympathized  with  the  Poles,  made  an  alliance  with  the  Czar. 
England,  Austria  and  France  sought  to  mediate  on  behalf  of  the  unfor- 
tunate nation,  and  to  secure  for  Poland  some  of  the  liberties  that  had 
been  promised  in  1815.  But  they  did  not  attempt  to  go  beyond  paper 
remonstrances,  which  Russia  treated  widi  contempt.  The  rebellion  was 
put  down  with  a  hideous  barbarity  that  was  disgraceful  to  a  state  which 
had  just  professed  such  solicitude  for  its  own  peasants.  It  was  deter- 
mined to  obliterate  the  last  remnants  of  Polish  nationality.  The  country 
was  divided  into  ten  provinces  ;  the  Russian  language  was  introduced  in 
the  schools,  and  in  all  public  acts  ;  the  University  of  Warsaw  was  Rus- 
sianized ,  the  Roman  Catholic  religion  became  a   luxury  which  only  the 


478  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

rich  could  afford  ;  and  to  punish  the  nobles   for  their  sympathy  with  the 
insurrection,  their  lands  were  arbitrarily  handed  over  to  the  peasants. 

THE  GREEK  REVOLUTION. 

The  Kino-dom  of  Greece  had  never  thriven  as  its  most  ardent  ad- 
mirers had  expected.  This  was  due  pardy  to  the  defects  of  the  Greeks 
themselves,  partly  to  the  errors  of  King  Otho  and  his  Bavarian  advisers, 
but  mainly  to  the  attitude  of  the  great  powers.  Neither  Russia  nor 
Eno-land  really  wished  Greece  to  become  a  powerful  State.  Russia 
dreaded  a  possible  rival  in  the  headship  of  the  Greek  Church,  and  Eng- 
land feared  for  her  commercial  supremacy  in  the  Levant.  Hence  the 
defective  frontier  which  was  given  to  the  new  kingdom,  and  the  constant 
snubs  that  it  received  from  the  European  States.  Otho,  who  was  only 
17  years  old  when  the  crown  was  given  to  him,  had  assumed  the  per- 
sonal control  of  the  government  in  1837.  Possessed  of  no  ability, 
experience  or  energy,  but  eager  to  exercise  an  absolute  authority  for 
which  he  was  unfitted,  he  had  alienated  his  subjects  before  they  had 
acquired  the  habits  of  loyalty.  A  revolution  in  1843  compelled  him  to 
dismiss  his  Bavarian  followers  and  to  grant  a  constitution.  When  the 
Crimean  war  broke  out,  the  Greeks  eagerly  seized  the  opportunity  to 
attempt  the  annexation  of  Thessaly  and  Epirus.  The  King  offered  no 
opposition  to  the  national  movement,  which  was  probably  prompted  by 
Russian  influence.  Regardless  that  by  a  breach  of  the  treaties  the  sup- 
port of  England  and  France  would  be  forfeited,  the  government  openly 
took  part  in  the  war,  which  had  already  been  commenced  by  an  insur- 
rection in  the  two  provinces.  The  Turks  had  no  difficulty  in  repulsing 
the  invaders,  whose  rapacity  and  disorder  did  much  to  conciliate  the  in- 
habitants to  Turkish  rule.  In  May,  1854,  English  and  French  troops 
landed  at  the  Piraeus  and  compelled  the  King  to  abandon  the  Russian  al- 
liance. From  this  time  the  Bavarian  monarchy  forfeited  all  hold  upon 
the  respect  or  affection  of  Greece. 

The  Italian  war  of  1859  evoked  the  warmest  sympathy  among  the 
Greeks,  while  Otho  and  his  court  did  not  disguise  their  attachment  to 
Austria.  To  put  down  the  growing  opposition,  the  King  endeavored  to 
tamper  with  the  constitution.  Newspapers  were  suppressed,  intimida- 
tion and  corruption  were  employed  to  influence  the  elections,  and  the 
Senate  was  packed  with  royal  nominees.     In  1862  a  rebellion  broke  out 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  479 

while  the  King  and  Queen  were  on  a  tour  through  the  country.  On 
returning  to  Athens  they  found  the  city  closed  against  them,  and  quitted 
Greece  under  the  protection  of  the  English  flag.  Otho,  who  never  aban- 
doned his  pretensions  to  the  throne,  died  at  Bamberg  in  1867.  Mean- 
while a  provisional  government  was  established,  and  a  national  assembly 
was  summoned  to  elect  a  new  king  and  to  frame  a  new  constitution. 
The  assembly  refused  to  take  the  responsibility  of  the  election,  and  en- 
trusted it  to  a  national  vote.  By  an  overwhelming  majority  the  crown 
was  offered  to  the  English  Prince  Alfred  (the  Duke  of  Edinburgh).  But 
the  great  powers  had  agreed  that  no  member  of  the  ruling  families  of 
France,  Russia  or  Great  Britain  should  ascend  the  throne  of  Greece,  and 
the  election  was  annulled.  England  now  undertook  to  find  a  constitu- 
tional king,  but  discovered  that  the  vacant  throne  was  not  an  object  of 
ambition  to  European  princes.  At  last  Prince  William  George  of  Den- 
mark, the  second  son  of  Christian  IX,  and  brother  of  the  Princess  of 
Wales,  was  selected,  and  was  acknowledged  by  the  Greeks  as  George  I. 
In  order  to  conciliate  the  Greeks  to  their  new  sovereiirn,  Eno-land  re- 
signed  the  Ionian  Islands  to  Greece  in  1864. 

TURKEY. 

In  Turkey,  Abdul  Medjid  died  in  1861,  and  was  succeeded  by  Abdul 
Aziz.  The  promises  which  the  Sultan  had  made  in  the  treaty  of  Paris 
shared  the  fate  of  most  Turkish  promises.  The  fact  was  that  the  des- 
potism of  the  Sultan  no  longer  existed  except  in  name.  Turkey  was 
practically  ruled  by  an  official  oligarchy,  and  the  personal  will  of  the 
nominal  ruler  counted  for  very  little  when  it  clashed  with  the  interests  of 
the  dominant  class.  A  series  of  revolts  in  the  Christian  provinces  at- 
tested the  continuance  of  Turkish  oppression  and  of  the  discontent 
which  it  could  hardly  fail  to  provoke.  The  most  important  of  these  re- 
volts before  1875  was  that  of  Crete  (1866-1868),  which  was  almost 
openly  countenanced  by  the  Greek  government.  Diplomatic  relations 
between  Constantinople  and  Athens  were  broken  off,  and  war  would 
probably  have  ensued  if  the  European  powers  had  not  stepped  in  to 
compel  Greece  to  observe  a  strict  neutrality.  The  insurrection  was  put 
down  in  1868  mainly  by  the  exertions  of  Hobart  Pasha,  an  English  naval 
officer  who  had  entered  the  Turkish  service,  and  Crete,  with  some  nomi 
nal  concessions,  returned  to  its  former  servitude. 


480  STORY   OF    ONE    HUNDRED   YEARS. 

THE   TAIPINGS. 

The  great  Taiping  rebellion  in  China,  which  had  long  been  in  pro- 
gress, which  had  cost  millions  of  lives,  and  had  threatened  the  existence 
of  the  Tartar  dynasty,  was  finally  brought  to  an  end  in  1864  through 
the  genius  of  the  illustrious  Charles  Gordon,  who  took  command  of  the 
mob-like  Chinese  forces  and  marshalled  them  into  the  "  Ever  Victor- 
ious Army." 

Two  years  later  a  peaceful  revolution  was  effected  in  Japan  by  the 
abolition  of  the  Shogunate  and  the  assumption  by  the  Mikado  of  actual 
as  well  as  nominal  authority. 

COCHIN   CHINA. 

The  French  aggressions  in  Annam,  or  Cochin  China,  which  had 
begun  in  the  preceding  century,  were  renewed  in  1862,  when  three  prov- 
inces of  Cochin  China  were  ceded  to  France  by  the  Emperor  of  Annam. 
In  1867  two  more  provinces  were  thus  ceded,  and  it  became  evident 
that  the  whole  Annamese  Empire  was  destined  to  become  a  French 
possession. 

Russia,  meanwhile,  was  busy  with  her  conquests  in  Central  Asia, 
establishing  in  1868  her  rule  over  Samarkand  and  Bokhara. 

The  year  1866  was  marked  in  Europe  by  a  revolution  in  Roumania. 
Prince  Couza  was  expelled,  and  Prince  Charles  of  Hohenzollern,  a  rela- 
tive of  the  King  of  Prussia,  was  chosen  in  his  place.  At  this  time 
Roumania  was  erected  in  a  practically  independent  principality. 

A  long-continued  war  between  Brazil  and  Paraguay,  or  against  the 
Dictator  of  the  latter  State,  came  to  an  indecisive  end  in  1867. 


CHAPTER  XXXVI. 


Discovery    of   the    Victoria    Nile    by    Speke    and    Grant  —  Livingstone's 

Return — Another  Expedition — Interests  of  Various 

Lands  —  Necrology. 


THE    progress    of  African    exploration    led  to  further  researches 
by  Speke  and  Grant,  who  had  already  distinguished  themselves 
in    the    equatorial    regions.      In    1862    they    discovered    and    ex- 
plored for  some  distance  the  so-called  Victoria  Nile.     Two  years 
later  Sir  Samuel  Baker  filled  up  another  large    spot   on    the    map    by 
his  discovery  of  Albert  Nyanza,  the  second  of  the  great  lakes  of  that 
part  of  Africa. 

The  veteran  Livingstone  was  meantime  busy  extending  the  sphere 
of  his  great  work  further  south.  In  a  former  chapter  we  left  him  on 
the  River  Rovuma.  After  exploring  that  stream  for  30  miles  in  his 
new  vessel  the  "Pioneer,"  Livingstone  and  the  missionaries  proceeded 
up  the  Shire  to  Chibisa.  There  they  found  the  slave  trade  rampant, 
desolating  the  country  and  paralyzing  all  effort.  On  July  15,  1S61, 
Livingstone,  accompanied  by  several  native  carriers,  started  to  show 
the  Bishop  the  country.  Several  bands  of  slaves  whom  they  met  were 
liberated,  and  after  seeing  the  missionary  party  settled  in  the  high- 
lands of  Magomero  to  the  south  of  Lake  Shirwa,  Livingstone  spent 
from  August  to  November  in  exploring  Lake  Nyassa.  While  the 
boat  sailed  up  the  west  side  of  the  lake  to  near  the  north  end,  the 
explorer  marched  along  the  shore.  He  returned  more  resolved  than 
ever  to  do  his  utmost  to  rouse  the  civilized  world  to  put  down  the 
desolating  slave-trade.  On  January  30,  1862,  at  the  Zambesi  mouth, 
Livingstone  welcomed  his  wife  and  the  ladies  of  the  mission,  with 
whom  were  the  sections  of  the  "Lady  Nyassa,"  a  river  steamer  which 
Livingstone  had  had  built  at  his  own  expense,  absorbing  most  of  the 
profits  of  his  book,  and  for  which  he  never  got  any  allowance.  When 
the  mission  ladies  reached  the  mouth  of  the  Ruo  tributary  of  the 
Shire,   they  were  stunned  to  hear  of  the  death  of  the    Bishop   and   of 

481 


482  STORY   OF  ONE   HUNDRED   YEARS. 

Mr.  Burrup.  This  was  a  sad  blow  to  Livingstone,  seeming  to  have 
rendered  all  his  efforts  to  establish  a  mission  futile.  A  still  greater 
loss  to  him  was  that  of  his  wife  at  Shupanga,  on  April   27,   1862. 

LIVINGSTONE'S    RETURN. 

The  "Lady  Nyassa "  was  taken  to  the  Rovuma.  Up  this  river 
Livingstone  managed  to  steam  156  miles,  but  further  progress  was 
arrested  by  rocks.  Returning  to  Zambesi  in  the  beginning  of  1863, 
he  found  that  the  desolation  caused  by  the  slave  trade  was  more 
horrible  and  widespread  than  ever.  It  was  clear  that  Portuguese 
officials  were  themselves  at  the  bottom  of  the  traffic.  Kirk  and  Charles 
Livingstone  being  compelled  to  return  to  England  on  account  of  their 
health,  the  Doctor  resolved  once  more  to  visit  the  lake,  and  proceeded 
some  distance  up  the  west  side  and  then  north-west  as  far  as  the 
water-shed  that  separates  the  Loangwa  from  the  rivers  that  run  into 
the  lake.  Meanwhile  a  letter  was  received  from  Earl  Russell  recall- 
ing the  expedition  by  the  end  of  the  year.  In  the  end  of  April  1864 
Livingstone  reached  Zanzibar  in  the  "Lady  Nyassa,"  and  on  the  30th 
he  set  out  with  nine  natives  and  four  Europeans  for  Bombay,  which 
was  reached  after  an  adventurous  voyage  of  a  month,  and  on  July  23 
Livingstone  arrived  in  England.  He  was  naturally  disappointed  with 
the  results  of  this  expedition,  all  its  leading  objects  being  thwarted 
through  no  blame  of  his.  For  the  unfortunate  disagreements  which 
occurred  and  for  which  he  was  blamed  in  some  quarters,  he  must  be 
held  acquitted,  as  he  was  by  the  authorities  at  home  ;  though  it  is  not 
necessary  to  maintain  that  Livingstone  was  e.xempt  from  the  trying 
effects  on  the  temper  of  African  fever,  or  from  the  intolerance  of 
lukewarmness  which  belongs  to  all  exceptionally  strong  natures.  Still 
the  results  at  the  time,  and  especially  those  of  the  future,  were  great. 
The  geographical  results,  though  not  in  extent  to  be  compared  to  those 
of  his  first  and  final  expeditions,  were  of  high  importance,  as  were 
those  in  various  departments  of  science.  Details  will  be  found  in  his 
"  Narrative   of  an    Expedition    to    the    Zambesi    and    its    Tributaries," 

published  in    1865. 

ANOTHER    EXPEDITION. 

By  Murchison  and  his  other  staunch  friends  Livingstone  was  as 
warmly  welcomed  as  ever.     When  Murchison  proposed  to  him  that  he 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  483 

should  go  out  again,  although  he  seems  to  have  had  a  desire  to  spend 
the  remainder  of  his  days  at  home,  the  prospect  was  too  tempting  to 
be  rejected.  He  was  appointed  H.  M.  consul  to  central  Africa  with- 
out a  salary,  and  the  Government  contributed  only  ^500  to  the  ex- 
pedition. The  chief  help  came  from  private  friends.  During  the 
latter  part  of  the  expedition  the  Government  granted  him  ^1000,  but 
that,  when  he  learned  of  it,  was  devoted  to  his  great  undertaking. 
The  Geographical  Society  contributed  ^500.  The  two  main  objects 
of  the  expedition  were  the  suppression  of  slavery  by  means  of  civil- 
izing influences,  and  the  ascertainment  of  the  water-shed  in  the  region 
between  Nyassa  and  Tanganyika.  At  first  Livingstone  thought  the 
Nile  problem  had  been  all  but  solved  by  Speke,  Baker,  and  Burton, 
but  the  idea  grew  upon  him  that  the  Nile  sources  must  be  sought 
farther  south,  and  his  last  journey  became  in  the  end  a  forlorn  hope 
in  search  of  the  "fountains"  of  Herodotus.  Leaving  England  in  the 
middle  of  August  1865,  via  Bombay,  Livingstone  arrived  at  Zanzibar 
on  January  28,  1866.  He  was  landed  at  the  mouth  of  the  Rovuma 
on  March  22,  and  started  for  the  interior  on  April  4.  His  company 
consisted  of  thirteen  Sepoys,  ten  Johanna  men,  nine  African  boys  from 
Nassick  school,  Bombay,  and  four  boys  from  Shire  region,  besides 
camels,  buffaloes,  mules,  and  donkeys.  This  imposing  outfit  soon 
melted  away  to  four  or  five  boys.  Rounding  the  south  end  of  Lake 
Nyassa,  Livingstone  struck  in  a  north-north-west  direction  for  the  south 
end  of  Lake  Tanganyika,  over  country  much  of  which  had  not  previ- 
ously been  explored.  The  Loangwa  was  crossed  on  December  15, 
and  on  Christmas  day  Livingstone  lost  his  four  goats,  a  loss  which  he 
felt  very  keenly,  and  the  medicine  chest  was  stolen  in  January  1868. 
Fever  came  upon  him,  and  for  a  time  was  his  almost  constant  com- 
panion ;  this,  with  the  fearful  dysentery  and  dreadful  ulcers  and  other 
ailments  which  subsequently  attacked  him,  and  which  he  had  no  medi- 
cine to  counteract,  no  doubt  told  fatally  on  even  his  iron  frame.  The 
Chambeze  was  crossed  on  January  28,  and  the  south  end  of  Tang- 
anyika reached  March  31.  Here,  much  to  his  vexation,  he  got  into 
the  company  of  Arab  slave-dealers,  by  whom  his  movements  were 
hampered  ;  but  he  succeeded  in  reaching  Lake  Moero.  After  visiting 
Lake  Mofwa  and  the  Lualaba,  which  he  believed  was  the  upper  part 
of  the  Nile,  he,  on  July   18,  discovered    Lake    Bangweolo.     Proceeding 


484  STORY   OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

up  the  west  coast  of  Tanganyika,  he  reached  Ujiji  on  March  14,  1869, 
"  a  ruckle  of  bones."  SuppHes  had  been  forwarded  to  him  at  Ujiji, 
but  had  been  knavishly  made  away  with  by  those  to  whose  care  they 
had  been  entrusted. 

INTERESTS   OF  VARIOUS  LANDS. 

A  number  of  important  incidents  in  the  years  now  under  con- 
sideration must  be  touched  upon  briefly  in  passing.  In  1861  the 
government  of  the  republic  of  Santo  Domingo  was  transferred  to 
Spain  by  Santana,  an  arrangement  which  did  not  last  long.  In  1862 
another  great  International  Exhibition  was  opened  in  London,  which 
proved  highly  successful,  despite  the  disturbance  of  commerce  and  in- 
dustry caused  by  the  civil  war  in  the  United  States. 

In  1864  was  formed  the  International  Association  of  Working- 
men,  commonly  known  as  the  International,  and  for  years  dreaded  by 
European  Governments  as  the  incarnation  of  revolutionary  ideas  and 
tendencies.  It  held  its  first  Congress  at  Geneva  in  1866,  and  adopted 
the  Socialistic  rules  prepared  by  Karl  Marx. 

In  the  latter  year  trans-atlantic  telegraphy  between  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain  was  successfully  and  permanently  re-estab- 
lished, and  since  that  date  has  never  been  interrupted.  From  time  to 
time  since  then  new  cables  have  been  laid,  until  now  there  are  several 
between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain,  one  between  the  United 
States  and  France,  and  one,  finished  in  1900,  between  the  United 
States  and  Germany. 

Another  International  Exhibition  was  held  in  Paris  in  1867,  in 
which  the  splendor  of  Louis  Napoleon's  empire  reached  its  climax. 

NECROLOGY. 

The  death  roll  included  in  1863  Jacob  Grimm,  the  great  German 
philologist  and  antiquary,  and  William  Makepeace  Thackeray,  the 
illustrious  English  novelist  and  satirist.  The  next  year  saw  the 
deaths  of  Nathaniel  Hawthorne,  one  of  America's  best  novelists, 
Meyerbeer,  the  musician,  and  Landor,  the  poet  and  essayist.  Victor 
Cousin,  the  French  philosopher,  and  Faraday,  the  scientist,  died  in  1867, 
and  Rossini,  the  composer,  and  Brougham,  the  British  statesman  and 
man  of  letters,  in   1868. 


CHAPTER  XXXVII. 


Ulysses    S.   Grant   becomes   President   of  the   United  States — Santo   Do- 
mingo—  Treaty    of   Washington — San    Juan    Boundary  —  Grant's 
Re-election — Indian  Troubles — The  Centennial  State — 
Financial  Troubles — The  Disputed  Election, 


ULYSSES  S.  GRANT  became  President  of  the  United  States  on 
March  4,  1869,  and  Schuyler  Colfax  at  the  same  time  became 
Vice-President.  The  nation  was  then  at  peace  and  in  a  highly 
prosperous  condition.  The  Civil  War  had,  it  is  true,  prostrated 
the  Southern  States,  but  these  were  now  rapidly  rising  into  renewed 
prosperity.  The  North,  on  the  other  hand,  had  received  a  great  indus- 
trial stimulus.  In  fact,  the  chief  trouble  was  too  great  inflation  of  busi- 
ness, from  which  there  was  danger  of  a  reaction.  The  population  of  the 
United  States  was  now  more  than  38,000,000,  and  manufactures  had 
doubled  in  value  smce  the  outbreak  of  the  war. 

The  fifteenth  amendment  to  the  Constitution,  prohibiting  the  States 
from  denying  to  any  citizen  the  right  to  vote  on  account  of  race,  color  or 
previous  condition  of  servitude,  was  adopted  in  February,  1869,  just 
before  Grant's  inauguration,  but  was  not  formally  proclaimed  until 
March  30th,  and  thus  went  into  force  practically  at  the  same  time  with 
the  beginning  of  his  administration.  This  intensified  the  political  trouble 
in  the  Southern  States,  where  the  "carpet-bag"  governments  were  now 
in  full  sway.  In  some  States  rival  governments  were  set  up,  and  civil 
war  was  prevented  only  by  the  maintenance  of  garrisons  of  United  States 
troops. 

As  a  protest  against  Federal  interference,  the  former  secessionists 
at  the  South,  who  had  how  received  full  amnesty  and  were  entitled  to 
hold  office  again,  organized  a  secret  league  known  as  the  Ku  Klux  Klan. 
This  body,  by  systematic  flogging  and  murdering  of  negroes  and  white 
Republicans,  established  a  reign  of  terror  in  several  States,  and  was 
enabled  to  control  the  elections  in  accordance  with  its  wishes.  When  at 
last  this  lawless  body  was  suppressed,  "tissue  ballots"  and  other  forms 

485 


486  STORY    OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

of  electoral  corruption  were  resorted  to  to  nullify  the  negro  vote  and 
give  political  power  to  those  who  had  exercised  it  before  the  war.  This 
condition  of  affairs  was  maintained  all  through  Grant's  administration, 
and  ended  in  the  triumph  of  the  white  party.  During  this  administration, 
too,  the  last  of  the  seceding  States  was  reconstructed  and  received  back 
into  the  Union. 

SANTO  DOMINGO. 

The  purchase  of  Alaska  by  the  preceding  administration  had  aroused 
the  old  time  American  spirit  of  territorial  expansion,  and  President  Grant 
soon  felt  its  force.  The  affairs  of  the  island  of  Santo  Domingo  had  long 
been  in  an  unsetded  state.  The  republic  of  Hayti  was  suffering  a  negro 
despotism.  The  Dominican  Republic  was  no  better  off.  It  had  been 
o-iven  to  Spain,  and  then  restored  to  independence,  but  was  manifestly 
unfit  for  self-government.  At  ';he  same  time  it  was  a  va'uable  country, 
and  its  position  on  the  map  was  one  of  vast  strategic  importance,  both  foi 
commerce  and  military  defence. 

Early  in  his  administration  President  Grant  was  approached  by 
President  Baez,  of  Dominica,  with  a  proposition  for  the  annexation  of  the 
latter  country  to  the  United  States.  President  Grant  was  favorably 
impressed  with  the  scheme,  as  were  his  Cabinet  officers.  Indeed,  the 
best  sentiment  of  the  nation  was  decidedly  in  favor  of  it.  A  treaty  ol 
annexation  was  therefore  negotiated  and  laid  before  the  Senate  for  ratifi- 
cation. But  there  was  in  the  Senate  a  certain  clique  of  men,  of  the 
President's  own  party,  led  by  Charles  Sumner,  who  were  intensely  hostile 
to  Grant,  largely  on  personal  grounds.  They  accordingly  opposed  the 
treaty,  and,  after  a  bitter  contest,  defeated  it.  This  was  the  beginning  of 
what  ultimately  became  an  open  rupture  in  the  Republican  party.  Later, 
President  Grant  negotiated  with  the  Danish  Government  for  the  purchase 
of  the  three  West  India  Islands  belonging  to  Denmark.  The  Danish 
Government  was  willing  to  sell,  the  people  of  the  islands  were  unan- 
imously in  favor  of  being  transferred  to  the  United  States,  and  the  islands 
were  recognized  to  be  of  great  value.  But  the  same  influences  prevailed 
in  the  Senate,  and  just  for  the  sake  of  spiting  the  President  the  scheme 
was  defeated. 

TREATY  OF  WASHINGTON. 

Grant's  administration  was  signalized  by  one  great  diplomatic 
triumph,  which  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  international  arbitration 


STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS.  4S7 

as  a  practical  method  of  settling  disputes  between  nations.  The  injuries 
inflicted  upon  American  commerce  by  the  "Alabama"  and  other  Con- 
federate privateers  has  already  been  mentioned.  Most  of  the  vessels 
were  built  or  fitted  out  in  Eno;land,  and  the  United  States  Government 
held  tliat  the  British  Government  had  thus  permitted  violations  of  the 
neutrality  laws,  and  was  therefore  to  be  held  accountable  for  the  losses 
inflicted  by  the  privateers. 

After  considerable  discussion  the  United  States  suggested,  and  the 
British  Government  agreed,  to  submit  the  whole  matter  to  a  court  of 
arbitration.  This  was  done  under  a  treaty  signed  at  Washington  on 
May  8,  1871,  and  known  as  the  Treaty  of  Washington. 

The  international  tribunal  of  arbitration  met  at  Geneva,  Switzerland. 
Both  the  parties  to  the  suit  were  represented  by  the  ablest  of  their 
counsel,  and  the  case  was  tried  in  great  detail  and  with  impartial 
thoroughness.  The  verdict  was  announced  on  September  14,  1872. 
It  was  to  the  effect  that  the  British  Government  was  culpable,  and  that  it 
must  pay  the  United  States  $15,500,000  damages.  This  verdict  was 
unhesitatingly  acquiesced  in  by  both  nations.  It  may  be  said  to  have 
marked  an  era  in  diplomacy,  for  it  was  the  first  great  example  of  such 
setdement  of  such  a  dispute.  From  that  example  have  followed  many 
subsequent  cases  of  arbitration,  including  the  great  scheme  for  a 
permanent  international  court  formulated  at  the  close  of  the  century. 

SAN   JUAN    BOUNDARY. 

At  about  the  same  time  another  dispute  between  the  two  countries 
was  also  submitted  to  arbitration.  This  had  to  do  with  the  boundary 
between  the  United  States  and  the  British  possessions  in  North  America 
at  the  extreme  north-west,  and  involved  the  possession  of  certain  islands 
and  the  control  of  the  entrance  to  Puget  Sound.  The  case  was  submitted 
to  the  German  Emperor  as  an  umpire,  and  after  mature  deliberation  he, 
on  October  21,  1872,  gave  his  decision  in  accordance  with  the  American 
claims.     This  decision  was  also  accepted  as  final  by  both  parties. 

GRANT'S  RE-ELECTION. 

The  year  1872  saw  the  culmination  of  the  Republican  revolt  against 
President  Grant.  In  that  year  a  secession  from  that  party  occurred, 
under  the   name  of  the  Liberal  Republicans.     The  latter  charged  the 


488 


STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 


Grant  administration  with  corruption,  and  with  an  illiberal  policy  toward 
the  Southern  States.  It  nominated  as  its  candidate  for  the  Presidency 
Horace  Greeley,  editor  of  "The  New  York  Tribune."  who  had  formerly 
been  one  ot  Grant's  most  earnest  supporters.  For  Vice-President  they 
nominated  P^rank  P.  Blair,  who  was  one  of  the  men  already  mentioned 
who  kept  Missouri  from  seceding  from  the  Union  in  1861.  The  Demo- 
crats, realizing  the  demoralized  condition  of  their  party  and  the  impossi- 
bility of  winning  the  election  by  themselves,  contented  themselves  with 
also  nominating  Greeley,  the  man  who  had  always  been  their  bitterest 
opponent,  and  whom  they  had  themselves  most  bitterly  opposed.  The 
Republicans  renominated  Grant  by  acclamation,  with  Henry  Wilson,  of 
Massachusetts,  as  candidate  for  Vice-President. 

The  campaign  was  one  of  exceptional  intensity  and  excitement.  It 
resulted  in  an  overwhelming  victory  for  Grant  and  Wilson.  Mr.  Greeley 
broke  down  his  health  by  his  extraordinary  labors  in  the  campaign,  and 
died  a  few  weeks  after  the  election,  mourned  by  the  whole  nation  as  one 
of  the  most  illustrious  men  of  his  age.  President  Grant,  his  successful 
rival,  was  conspicuous  among  the  mourners  who  followed  his  bier. 

INDIAN  TROUBLES. 

In  the  fall  of  1872  a  war  broke  out  with  the  Modoc  Indian  tribes, 
which  lasted  for  some  months  and  cost  many  lives.  The  tribe  was  deci- 
mated and  its  remnant  surrendered  in  1873. 

In  1876  occurred  one  of  the  most  disastrous  Indian  wars  of  recent 
years.  An  outbreak  by  the  Sioux,  provoked  by  bad  faith  on  the  part  of 
United  States  officials,  led  to  the  sendino-  of  General  Custer  to  restore 
order.  Custer  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  cavalry  officers  in  the 
United  States  army,  and  he  had  with  him  a  large  body  of  veteran  troops. 
They  were,  however,  led  into  an  ambush,  and  after  a  desperate  conflict 
were  killed  to  the  last  man.  Other  troops  were  hurried  to  the  scene,  and 
the  Sioux  were  finally  subdued. 

THE  CENTENNIAL  STATE. 

The  Territory  of  Colorado  was  found  to  be  rich  in  mines  of  gold 
and  silver,  as  well  as  in  agricultural  resources.  Its  population  rap- 
idly increased,  and  by  1876  it  was  deemed  worthy  of  Statehood.  In  that 
year,  accordingly,  it  was  admitted  to  the  Union  as  a  State,  and  has  since 


1889— EIFFEL  TOWER— WORLD'S  FAIR,  PARIS 


JOHN  PHILIP  S0U5A 


1890— NOTED  MUSIC  COMPOSERS  OF  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  49 1 

been  known  as  the  Centennial  State,  since  it  was  admitted  just  a  hundred 
years  after  the  signing  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 

FINANCIAL  TROUBLES. 

The  year  1873  "^^^  marked  by  widespread  financial  troubles  through- 
out the  world,  and  especially  in  the  United  States.  They  were  here 
caused  by  a  reaction  from  the  inflation  of  business  at  the  close  of  the  war, 
and  also  by  the  unsettled  state  of  the  national  currency.  One  of  the 
greatest  panics  on  record  swept  over  the  land,  and  for  years  thereafter 
business  suffered  serious  depression.  These  circumstances  seriously 
affected  the  course  of  political  events  in  the  closing  years  of  Grant's  term. 

Nor  was  the  Administration  free  from  political  scandals,  though  the 
President  himself  was  doubtless  free  from  all  blame.  One  of  these  was 
in  connection  with  the  administration  of  Indian  affairs,  it  being  found  that 
the  Federal  Indian  agents  were  largely  guilty  of  gross  frauds  upon  both 
the  Government  and  the  Indians.  Another  was  known  as  the  Credit 
Mobilier  case,  and  concerned  the  connection  of  Federal  officials  and 
members  of  Congress  with  a  corporation  of  that  name  chartered  to  pro- 
mote the  building  of  the  Pacific  railroad.  It  appeared  that  some  mem- 
bers of  Congress  had  accepted  gifts  of  stock,  intended  as  bribes  to  influ- 
ence their  action  in  legislation.  Again,  in  March,  1873,  Congress  raised 
the  salarj'  of  the  President  from  $25,000  to  $50,000,  and  the  salaries  of 
many  other  public  officers,  including  all  Senators  and  Representatives  in 
Congress.  The  increase  in  Congressional  salaries  was  made  to  date 
back  two  years.  This  scandalous  performance  was  known  as  the  "salary 
grab,"  and  it  was  regarded  with  so  much  popular  odium  that  the  next 
year  the  act  was  repealed  and  all  salaries  were  reduced  to  their  former 
figure  e.xcept  that  of  the  President.  In  1872  a  combination  of  distillers 
was  formed  in  St.  Louis  for  the  purpose  of  defrauding  the  Government 
of  internal  revenue  taxes  on  whiskey.  This  "whiskey  ring,"  as  it  was 
called,  was  exposed  in  1875  and  some  Government  officials  were  found 
to  be  involved  in  it.  More  than  two  hundred  persons  were  indicted  as  a 
result  of  the  vigorous  prosecution  which  President  Grant  ordered. 

THE  DISPUTED  ELECTION. 

The  Presidential  election  of  1876  was  the  most  memorable  m  the 
history  of  the  country.     The  Republican   candidates   for  President  and 

id 


492  STORY    OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

Vice-President  were  Rutherford  B.  Hayes,  of  Ohio,  and  William  A. 
Wheeler,  of  New  York.  The  Democratic  candidates  were  Samuel  J. 
Tilden,  of  New  York,  and  Thomas  A.  Hendricks,  of  Indiana.  After  an 
exciting  campaign  the  result  was  found  to  be  in  doubt.  The  election 
turned  upon  the  votes  of  South  Carolina,  Florida  and  Louisiana.  In 
those  States  there  were  rival  Governments  and  rival  returning  boards, 
and  so  conflicting  sets  of  returns  were  forwarded  to  Washington.  Be- 
yond doubt  there  was  much  corruption  on  both  sides,  and  the  full  truth 
of  the  situation  will  never  be  known.  For  months  the  land  was  con- 
vulsed with  e.xcitement,  and  there  would  have  been  serious  danger  of 
civil  war  had  a  man  less  firm  and  less  wise  than  Grant  been  in  the  Presi- 
idential  chair. 

After  long  deliberations.  Congress — of  which  the  Senate  was  Re- 
publican and  the  House  of  Representatives  Democratic — decided  to  sub- 
mit the  disputed  returns  to  an  electoral  commission,  composed  of  five 
Senators,  five  Representatives,  and  five  Justices  of  the  Supreme  Court. 
The  Senators  chosen  were  Republicans,  the  Representatives  were 
Democrats,  and  the  Justices  were  supposed  to  be  impartial  in  politics. 
It  was  found,  however,  that  on  all  decisive  issues  three  of  the  Justices 
voted  with  the  Republican  Senators,  and  two  with  the  Democratic  Repre- 
sentatives. This  division  gave  the  Republicans  eight  and  the  Democrats 
seven  votes  in  the  commission.  Accordingly  Hayes  and  Wheeler  were 
declared  to  have  been  elected,  and  they  were  duly  inducted  into  office. 
This  setdement  of  the  case  was  acquiesced  in  by  the  Democrats,  but  the 
justice  of  it  was  never  entirely  conceded. 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII. 


Irish  Church  Disestablished — Irish  Land  Act — Revolution  in  Spain — French 
Quarrel  with  Prussia — Beginning  of  the  War — German   Conquest  of 
France — The  French  Republic — Siege  of  Paris — Surrender — Terms 
of  Peace  —  The  Commune— Strength  of  the   Republic  —  The 
German  Empire — Conference  on   the  Black  Sea — British 
Affairs — Gladstone  and  Disraeli — Ashantee  War — Em- 
press of  India — The  Suez  Canal  Shares — Occupa- 
tion of  Rome — King  Amadeus — Germany  and 
the  Vatican — Emancipation  in  Brazil. 


SCARCELY  had  the  British  Parhament  reassembled,  in  1868,  when 
the  Earl  of  Derby  retired  through  ill-health,  and  was  succeeded  in 
the  Premiership  by  Mr.  Disraeli.  Amidst  the  excitement  of  a  new 
and  fierce  conflict  on  the  proposal  made  by  Mr.  Gladstone  for  the 
disestablishment  of  the  Irish  Church,  the  measures  of  reform  were  com- 
pleted (at  least  for  the  present)  by  the  passing  of  Reform  Bills  for  Scot- 
land and  Ireland,  and  an  act  for  the  better  trial  of  controverted  elections. 
The  last  Parliament  elected  under  the  Reform  Act  of  1832  w^as  dissolved 
on   November   11,    1868. 

IRISH  CHURCH  DISE^STABLISHED. 

The  elections  in  November  were  virtually  an  appeal  to  the  people 
on  the  question  of  the  disestablishment  of  the  Irish  Church  ;  and  the 
result  was  so  decisive  that  Mr.  Disraeli  resigned  without  waiting  for  the 
meeting  of  Parliament  (December  2d),  and  Mr.  Gladstone  became  Prime 
Minister  (December  9th).  In  the  Eighth  Parliament  of  Queen  Victoria 
(the  twentieth  of  the  United  Kingdom),  which  met  next  day,  the  Ministry 
had  a  majority  of  more  than  one  hundred.  In  July,  1869,  the  connection 
between  the  churches  of  England  and  Ireland  was  dissolved.  The  latter 
was  disestablished  and  disendowed.  Its  temporalities  were  vested  in 
three  commissioners,  with  reservation  of  existing  interests.    A  large  sum 

493 


494  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

was  granted  to  the  Roman  Catholic  College  of  Maynooth,  and  to  such  of 
the  Protestant  dissenters  as  were  recipients  of  the  royal  grant  called 
regiwn  dcmum.  In  the  same  session  imprisonment  for  debt  (except  as  a 
means  of  enforcing  the  judgments  of  county  courts)  was  abolished  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  and  three  years  later  in  Ireland. 

IRISH  LAND  ACT. 

In  1870  Mr.  Gladstone  took  the  second  step  in  his  Irish  policy  by 
the  Land  Act,  which  provided  for  the  compensation  of  outgoing  tenants, 
and  for  loans  to  landlords  for  improvements,  and  to  tenants  desiring  to 
purchase  their  holdings.  Courts  of  arbitration  were  established  for  the 
setdement  of  all  claims  ;  and  the  freedom  of  contract  between  landlord 
and  tenant  was  so  far  limited  as  to  nullify  all  agreements  in  contravention 
of  the  purpose  of  the  act.  The  same  session  is  memorable  for  establish- 
ing a  system  of  national  education  in  England  by  means  of  elective  school 
boards.  In  these  schools  all  religious  creeds  were  forbidden.  A  similar 
measure  passed  for  Scotland  in  1872.  The  year  before  all  religious  tests 
for  degrees  and  offices  (except  those  of  an  ecclesiastical  nature)  in  the 
English  Universities  had  been  abolished. 

REVOLUTION  IN  SPAIN. 

In  a  former  chapter  we  left  Spain  in  the  midst  of  a  revolutionary 
era.  Queen  Isabella  II  had  been  expelled.  But  the  leaders  of  the 
movement  were  not  republicans,  and  tiiey  at  once  looked  round  for  a 
Prince  to  fill  the  vacant  throne.  There  were  three  Bourbon  candidates, 
Alfonso,  Isabella's  son;  the  Duke  of  Montpensier,  husband  of  the  Queen's 
sister ;  and  Don  Carlos,  the  representative  of  the  legal  claims  of  the 
male  line.  But  no  one  of  them  was  acceptable  to  the  people  or  to  their 
leaders,  and  it  was  necessary  to  seek  a  foreign  ruler.  Serrano  was 
appointed  Regent  during  the  interregnum,  and  Prim  undertook  the  office 
of  Minister  of  War.  The  Cortes  drew  up  a  newconstitution,  by  which 
a  hereditary  king  was  to  rule  in  conjunction  with  a  Senate  and  a  popular 
chamber.  The  "Iberian"  party  wished  to  unite  the  whole  peninsula  by 
the  election  of  the  King  of  Portugal,  but  he  refused  to  entertain  the  pro- 
posal. At  last  it  was  decided  to  offer  the  crown  to  Leopold,  of  Hohen- 
zoIlern-Sigmaringen,  belonging  to  a  distant  branch  of  the  royal  family  of 
Prussia.     The  Prince  expressed  his  personal  willingness  to  accept  the 


o 
o 

< 
'J 


:j 


2 
5 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 


497 


offer,  but,  as  a  Prussian  subject,  he  demanded  and  obtained  the  approval 
of  William  I. 

FRENCH  QUARREL  WITH  PRUSSIA. 

The  Prince  of  Hohenzollern  was  connected  with  the  Bonaparte 
family,  as  his  father  had  married  Antoinette  Murat,  and  it  was  hoped 
that  his  candidature  would  therefore  be  acceptable  to  the  French 
Emperor.  But  Napoleon  III  represented  the  whole  affair  as  an  intrigue 
of  Bismarck  to  extend  the  authority  of  Prussia  in  Europe.  To  satisfy 
him  the  Prince  withdrew  his  acceptance  of  the  Spanish  crown  (July  12th). 
But  Napoleon  and  the  Ollivier  Ministry  were  convinced  that  a  war  was 
the  only  means  of  reviving  the  waning  attachment  of  the  people  of  the 
empire.  A  plebiscite  in  1869  had  approved  a  new  constitution,  but  the 
increased  number  of  negative  votes  had  been  very  significant.  They 
were  encouraged  by  the  belief  that  the  States  of  southern  Germany  were 
jealous  of  Prussian  ascendancy,  and  would  welcome  the  prospect  of 
recovering  their  independence.  The  French  Envoy,  Benedetti,  was 
instructed  to  demand  a  promise  from  the  Prussian  King  that,  if  Spain 
again  pressed  the  Hohenzollern  candidate,  he  would  interpose  his 
authority  to  prohibit  it.  William  I  courteously  but  firmly  refused  to  give 
any  such  pledge.  On  July  19th  France  declared  war  against  Prussia,  and 
the  streets  of  Paris  resounded  with  the  cries  of  a  Berlin !  For  the 
moment  the  empire  seemed  to  be  stronger  and  more  popular  than  at 
any  time  since  its  establishment. 

BEGINNING  OF  THE  WAR. 

All  the  hopes  that  had  been  based  upon  German  disunion  were 
speedily  disappointed.  The  North  German  Confederation  placed  the 
whole  of  its  forces  at  the  disposal  of  Prussia,  and  voted  one  hundred  and 
twenty  million  thalers  for  the  e.xpenses  of  the  war  ;  the  Southern  States 
hastened  to  fulfill  the  obligations  imposed  by  the  treaties  of  1867.  More 
than  440,000  men  were  placed  in  the  field  under  the  nominal  command  of 
the  King,  but  the  real  direction  of  Von  Moltke.  The  Crown  Prince, 
Prince  Frederick  Charles,  and  Steinmetz,  were  the  chief  leaders  of  divi- 
sions. The  command  of  the  French  army  was  assumed  by  Napoleon  in 
person,  his  chief  marshals  being  Leboeuf,  Bazaine,  MacMahon  and 
Canrobert.    The  regency  in  Paris  was  entrusted  to  the  Empress  Eugenie. 


49« 


STORY    OP   ONE    HUNDRED   YEARS. 


The  first  action  was  fought  at  Saarbruck  (August  3d),  where  the  young 
Prince  Imperial  underwent  his  "  baptism  of  fire." 

GERMAN  CONQUEST  OF  FRANCE. 

From  this  moment  events  marched  with  a  rapidity  that  astounded 
Europe.  In  every  engagement  the  Germans  showed  an  immense  superi- 
ority in  everything  but  personal  bravery.  The  French  fought  with  con- 
spicuous courage,  but  they  had  to  contend  against  superior  arms  and 
superior  generalship.  They  were  the  first  in  the  field  and  ought  to  have 
taken  the  aggressive.  Their  delay  allowed  the  Germans  to  enter  Alsace, 
and  to  carry  on  the  war  on  French  soil.  MacMahon  was  defeated  at 
Weissemburg  (August  3d),  and  again  at  Worth  (August  6th).  General 
Frossard  was  driven  from  the  heights  of  Spicheren  by  the  army  of  Fred- 
erick Charles  and  Steinmetz  (August  6th).  The  main  force  of  the 
French  was  now  concentrated  near  Metz  under  Bazaine,  while  MacMahon, 
who  had  been  wounded  at  Worth,  retreated  to  Chalons.  At  Gravelotte 
a  bloody  and  decisive  victory  was  gained  by  the  Germans  (August  18th), 
and  Bazaine  shut  himself  up  in  Metz.  Frederick  Charles  was  entrusted 
with  the  blockade  of  the  fortress,  while  the  rest  of  the  German  army 
under  the  Crown  Prince  advanced  upon  Paris.  MacMahon  was  now 
ordered  by  the  Emperor  to  march  from  Chalons  to  relieve  Metz.  At 
Sedan  the  French  were  completely  defeated  (September  ist),  and  on  the 
next  day  the  whole  army  capitulated.  Napoleon  himself  became  a  pris- 
oner and  was  sent  to  Wilhelmshohe,  in  Cassel. 

THE  FRErCH   REPUBLIC. 

The  news  of  these  crushing  disasters  overthrew  the  French  Empire. 
The  Empress  Eugenie  lied  to  tlngland  ;  a  "  Government  of  national  de- 
fence" was  formed  by  the  Deputies  of  Paris,  and  the  Republic  was  for- 
mally proclaimed  (September  4th).  A  Ministry  was  appointed,  of  which 
the  leading  spirits  were  Jules  Favre,  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  and 
Gambetta,  Minister  of  the  Interior.  The  Senate  was  abolished,  and  the 
Corps  Legislatif  was  dissolved.  The  defence  of  the  capital  was  left  in 
the  hands  of  General  Trochu,  who  had  been  appointed  by  the  regent  be- 
fore her  flight.  M.  Thiers,  who  had  no  Republican  sympathies,  and  who 
had  refused  a  place  in   the   Provisional  Government,  undertook   an  in- 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  499 

formal  embassy  to  the  European  sovereigns  to   request  their  mediation 
on  behalf  of  France. 

SIEGE  or   PARIS. 

Meanwhile  the  advance  of  the  Germans  continued.  On  September 
20th  Paris  was  invested  ;  on  the  28th  Strasburg  surrendered  ;  and  finally, 
on  October  28th  Bazaine  capitulated  at  Metz,  and  150,000  French  troops, 
including  three  marshals,  50  generals  and  nearly  6000  officers  became  pris- 
oners of  war.  Gambetta,  who  had  escaped  from  Paris  in  a  balloon,  or- 
o-anized  the  "army  of  the  Loire,"  which  carried  on  a  desperate  but  hope- 
less resistance  to  the  invaders.  Paris  held  out  with  obstinate  courage, 
though  the  inhabitants  were  compelled  to  feed  on  vermin  to  escape 
starvation.  To  add  to  the  general  distress,  the  Communists  organized 
an  emeute  under  Flourens,  Blanqui,  etc.,  which  almost  succeeded  in  over- 
throwing the  government,  but  was  ultimately  put  down  by  the  national 
oruard.  In  the  provinces  the  Germans  carried  all  before  them  in  a  num- 
ber of  local  engagements.  Garibaldi  offered  his  services  and  came  as 
far  as  Besancon,  but  it  was  too  late  to  effect  anything.  Gambetta's  army 
of  the  Loire  was  practically  destroyed.  The  only  place  besides  the  capi- 
tal which  held  out  was  the  fortress  of  Belfort  in  Alsace. 

SURRENDER. 

At  last  the  condition  of  Paris  made  it  imperative  to  come  to  terms, 
and  the  preliminaries  of  a  peace  were  arranged  by  Bismarck  and  Jules 
Favre  at  Versailles.  An  armistice  was  concluded  for  three  weeks,  and 
all  military  operations  were  to  cease  except  those  in  the  Jura  and  the 
siege  of  Belfort  ;  a  National  Assembly  was  to  meet  at  Bordeau.x  to  settle 
the  terms  of  peace.  The  forts  of  Paris  were  to  be  placed  in  the  hands 
of  the  Germans,  but  they  were  to  be  excluded  from  the  city  ;  the  garri- 
son was  to  surrender  as  prisoners  of  war,  e.xcept  12,000  men,  who  were 
left  to  maintain  order ;  the  blockade  was  to  continue,  but  measures  were 
arranged  for  supplying  food  to  the  citizens.  The  capitulation  raised  a 
feeling  of  bitter  indignation  in  the  provinces,  and  Gambetta  announced 
his  determination  to  continue  the  war  in  defiance  of  the  armistice.  But 
Jules  Simon  was  dispatched  to  Bordeaux  to  prohibit  this  useless  quixotism, 
and  Gambetta  in  disgust  resigned  his  place  in  the  Ministry.  The  Assem- 
bly met  at  Bordeaux  on  February  12th  and  elected  M.  Thiers  as  "head 
of  the  Executive  Government  of  the  French  Republic." 


500  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

TERMS  OF  PEACE. 

The  veteran  politician,  whose  services  to  his  country  in  the  moment 
of  disaster  outweighed  any  errors  of  his  previous  career,  at  once  under- 
took the  difficult  task  of  securing  the  best  possible  terms  from  Bis- 
marck. The  preliminaries  were  signed  on  February  26th.  France  ceded 
the  whole  of  Alsace  except  Belfort  (which  had  surrendered  on  February 
i6th),  and  the  greater  part  of  Lorraine,  including  the  fortresses  of  Metz 
and  Thionville.  The  indemnity  was  fixed  at  five  milliards  of  francs,  to  be 
paid  within  three  years.  The  German  army  of  occupation  was  to  be 
withdrawn  gradually  as  each  instalment  of  the  indemnity  was  paid,  and 
while  it  remained,  was  to  be  supported  at  the  expense  of  France.  The 
National  Assembly  accepted  the  terms  by  546  votes  to  107,  and  the  final 
treaty  of  Frankfort  was  signed  on  May  10,  1871. 

THE  COMMUNE. 

The  third  French  Republic  was  not  established  without  a  desperate 
struggle  against  a  worse  foe  than  Germany.  Scarcely  had  Paris  emerged, 
stricken  and  worn,  from,  the  German  siege  than  the  mob  of  the  streets 
arose  against  the  government  of  M.  Thiers  and  proclaimed  a  Commune, 
based  on  the  principles  of  the  Reign  of  Terror  of  1793.  The  Arch- 
bishop and  other  priests  were  murdered  in  cold  blood,  churches  and 
public  buildings  were  wantonly  destroyed,  and  anarchy  prevailed.  The 
Republican  Government  had  to  conduct  a  regular  siege  to  regain  posses- 
sion of  the  city,  their  own  seat  of  Government  meanwhile  being  at  Ver- 
sailles. At  last  the  Commune  was  suppressed  at  a  fearful  cost,  and  the 
leaders  of  it  put  to  death  or  sent  into  exile,  from  which  they  were  not 
permitted  to  return  for  many  years. 

STRENGTH  OF  THE  REPUBLIC. 

The  third  French  Republic  was  established  at  a  period  of  national 
humiliation  unparalleled  since  the  fifteenth  century,  but  it  has  achieved 
greater  permanence  than  either  of  its  predecessors.  Napoleon  III  took 
up  his  residence  at  Chiselhurst,  where  he  died  in  January,  1873.  The 
death  of  his  unfortunate  son,  the  Prince  Imperial,  in  South  Africa  (June 
I,  1879)  seems  to  have  rendered  hopeless  any  project  of  another  Bona- 
partist  restoration.  The  Royalist  party  also  suffered  from  the  discord 
between  the  elder  Bourbons  and  the  house  of  Orleans.     To  these  causes 


STORY    OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS.  5OI 

and  the  popular  desire  for  rest,  the  Republic  has  undoubtedly  owed  much 
of  its  strength.  The  first  President,  Mr.  Thiers,  held  office  until  May 
24,  1873,  when  a  hostile  vote  of  the  Assembly  led  to  his  resignation,  and 
he  was  replaced  by  Marshal  MacMahon.  In  1875  a  new  Republican 
constitution  was  drawn  up  which  created  two  chambers,  an  elective  Sen- 
ate and  a  Chamber  of  Deputies.  As  the  President  showed  an  inclina- 
tion to  a  reactionary  policy,  the  Republicans  formed  a  strong  opposition. 
In  1878  MacMahon  resigned,  and  M.  Jules  Grevy  was  chosen  as  his 
successor. 

THE   GERMAN   EMPIRE. 

In  Germany  the  result  of  the  war  was  to  give  a  great  impulse  to- 
ward the  establishment  of  unity  under  Prussian  headship.  The  work 
which  the  Parliament  of  Frankfort  had  failed  to  carry  out  in  the  revolu- 
tionary period  was  easily  accomplished  at  the  time  when  Germans  were 
fighting  side  by  side  for  a  common  fatherland.  Bismarck  was  enabled 
to  sweep  away  the  unnatural  line  of  the  Main  and  to  extend  the  Confed- 
eration of  1867  over  the  four  States  of  Southern  Germany.  The  terms 
of  union  were  settled  in  separate  negotiations  with  the  Governments  of 
Bavaria,  Wurtemberg,  Baden  and  Grand-ducal  Hesse  They  were  then 
submitted  for  formal  approval  to  the  estates  of  each  province  and  to  the 
Diet  of  the  North  German  Confederation.  On  January  18,  1871,  the 
veteran  King  of  Prussia  was  formally  proclaimed  German  Emperor  in 
the  ereat  Hall  of  Mirrors  at  Versailles.  Bismarck,  the  Cavour  of  Ger- 
many,  was  appointed  Imperial  Chancellor. 

CONFERENCE  ON  THE  BLACK  SEA. 

Another  consequence  of  the  war  was  that  Russia,  supported  by 
Prince  Bismarck,  denounced  the  clause  of  the  treaty  of  1856,  which  for- 
bade her  keeping  a  fleet  in  the  Black  Sea.  A  conference  of  the  great 
powers  at  London,  while  releasing  Russia  from  that  engagement,  placed 
on  record,  as  an  essential  principle  of  the  law  of  nations,  that  no  power 
can  liberate  itself  from  the  engagements  of  a  treaty,  nor  modify  its  stipu- 
lations, without  the  consent  of  the  contracting  parties  (January,  1871). 

BRITISH  AFFAIRS. 

On  February  27,  1872,  a  service  of  public  thanksgiving  was  cele- 
brated at  St.  Paul's,  attended   by  the  Queen   and   royal  family,  for  the 


502  STORY  OK  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

recovery  of  the  Prince  of  Wales  from  a  dangerous  illness,  in  December, 
1871.  The  sympathy  expressed  by  all  classes  on  this  occasion  was  so 
decided  a  proof  in  favor  of  hereditary  monarchy,  that  it  served  as  a  timely 
check  on  some  rash  exhibitions  of  theoretical  republicanism.  The 
secret  ballot  in  parliamentary  elections,  so  long  advocated  by  the  Radical 
party,  was  adopted  in  the  same  year. 

GLADSTONE  AND  DISRAELI. 

On  the  reassembling  of  Parliament  in  1873  Mr.  Gladstone  intro- 
duced his  Irish  University  Bill  ;  but  it  failed  to  conciliate  the  Catholics, 
and  was  defeated  by  287  to  284  on  the  second  reading  (March  nth). 
The  Gladstone  Ministry  resigned  ;  but  they  returned  to  office  on  the 
20th,  as  Mr.  Disraeli  declined  to  undertake  the  government  with  the 
existing  House  of  Commons.  The  attempt  at  Irish  university  reform 
was  not  renewed  ;  but  religious  tests  were  abolished  in  Trinity  College, 
Dublin  (May).  The  great  act  ot  the  session  was  the  constitution  of  a 
Supreme  Court  of  Judicature,  which  came  into  effect  (with  some  subse- 
quent alterations)  on  November  i,  1875.  On  that  date  the  ancient 
Courts  of  Queen's  Bench,  Common  Pleas,  and  Exchequer,  as  well  as 
those  of  Chancery,  of  Admiralty,  of  Probate  and  Divorce,  and  the 
ecclesiastical  Court  of  Arches,  ceased  to  exist  as  separate  tribunals,  but 
their  names  were  retained  as  those  of  divisions  of  the  Supreme  Court. 
One  of  the  chief  objects  had  in  view  in  this  alteration  was  the  fusion  of 
the  principles  of  law  and  equity. 

ASHANTEE  WAR. 

In  the  autumn  of  1873  Great  Britain  was  engaged  in  a  war  with  the 
Ashantees  in  West  Africa,  in  consequence  of  misunderstandings  resulting 
from  the  sale  to  England  of  the  Dutch  colonies  on  the  Gold  Coast. 
Under  the  skillful  conduct  of  Sir  Garnet  Wolseley,  the  King  of  Ashantee 
was  defeated,  and  his  capital  Coomassie,  taken  and  burned,  and  he 
accepted   peace,  consenting  to  abolish   human    sacrifices  (February  11, 

'874)- 

During  this  session  the  Ministry  was  greatly  weakened,  and  there 
were  manifest  proofs  of  a  conservative  reaction.  On  January  23,  1874, 
Mr.  Gladstone  suddenly  decided  on  dissolving  Parliament ;  but  the  elec- 
tions, under  the  joint  operation  of  the  late  Reform  Act  and  vote  by  ballot, 


STORY  Of  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  5^3 

gave  the  Conservatives  a  great  majority.  Following  Mr.  Disraeli's 
example  in  1868,  Mr.  Gladstone's  Ministry  resigned  without  waiting  to 
meet  Parliament  (February  17th);  and  Mr.  Disraeli  became  Prime 
Minister  a  second  time.  His  government  included  the  Marquis  of 
Salisbury  and  the  Earl  of  Carnarvon,  who  had  separated  from  him  on  the 
reform  question  in  1867  ;  the  Earl  of  Derby  was  again  Foreign  Secretary, 
and  Sir  Stafford  Northcote  (a  financial  disciple  of  Mr.  Gladstone) 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer. 

The  Queen's  Ninth  Parliament  met  on  March  5th,  and  the  most 
important  measure  of  the  session  was  the  act  for  the  regulation  of  public 
worship,  which  provided  simpler  means  of  bringing  disputes  on  ritual 
observances  to  a  judicial  decision.  The  duties  on  sugar  were  abolished. 
By  this  time  it  was  apparent  that  the  country  desired  a  rest  from  organic 
changes,  and  the  ensuing  year  was  mainly  occupied  with  measures  of 
legal,  social  and  sanitary  improvements.  In  September,  1874,  the  annex- 
ation of  the  Fiji  Islands,  by  the  desire  of  the  inhabitants,  secured  a  station 
in  the  Pacific  of  great  importance  for  communication  with  Australia  and 
New  Zealand. 

EMPRESS  OF  INDIA. 

Early  in  1875  Mr.  Gladstone  retired  from  the  leadership  of  the 
Liberal  party  and  was  succeeded  by  the  Marquis  of  Hartington.  At  the 
close  of  the  year  the  Prince  of  Wales  set  out  on  a  visit  to  India.  At 
Calcutta  he  held  a  chapter  of  the  Order  of  the  Star  of  India  (January  i, 
1876),  which  was  numerously  attended  by  the  native  princes  and  their 
suites  in  the  gorgeous  equipage  of  their  several  provinces.  On  the  i  ith 
he  visited  Delhi ;  and  after  a  tour  in  Her  Majesty's  Indian  dominions, 
with  a  splendor  and  popularity  such  as  had  never  fallen  to  the  lot  of  a 
European  prince,  he  returned  to  Bombay  (March  nth)  and  embarked 
for  England.  In  the  meantime  Lord  Northbrook  had  resigned  the  office 
of  Governor-General,  and  was  succeeded  by  Lord  Lytton,  son  of  the 
famous  novelist  (April  12th). 

In  commemoration  of  the  Prince's  visit,  and  as  a  sign  of  the  imperial 
relation  of  the  British  power  to  all  India,  Parliament  gave  the  Queen 
authority  to  assume  the  title  of  Empress  of  India,  which  was  proclaimed 
in  London  on  April  28,  1876,  and  in  India,  with  great  solemnities,  on 
January  i,  1877- 


504  STORY    UK    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

THE  SUEZ  CANAL  SHARERS. 

In  November,  1875,  Mr.  Disraeli  had  proposed  to  purchase  the 
Khedive's  share  of  the  Suez  Canal,  at  the  price  of  four  millions,  and  the 
proposal  was  unanimously  sanctioned  by  the  House  of  Commons 
(February  21,  1876).  At  the  close  of  this  session  Mr.  Disraeli,  who  was 
seventy-one  years  of  age,  and  had  borne  for  thirty  years  the  strain  of 
leading  his  party  in  the  Commons,  was  removed  to  the  House  of  Lords, 
with  the  title  of  Earl  of  Beaconsfield. 

WAR  IN  THE  BALKANS. 

Meanwhile  the  attention  of  the  nation  had  been  drawn  to  the  mis- 
government  of  Turkey,  and  the  atrocities  perpetrated  under  its  feeble 
and  inefficient  rule,  by  Count  Andrassy's  note,  presented  to  the  Porte 
(January  31,  1876),  by  the  Austrian,  Russian  and  German  Ambassadors. 
The  Turkish  Sultan,  Abdul  Aziz,  was  deposed  (May  30th),  and  committed 
suicide  five  days  after.  He  was  succeeded  by  Murad  Y.  But  the  change 
of  rulers  produced  no  alteration  in  the  sentiments  of  Europe.  The 
odium  into  which  the  Turkish  Government  had  fallen  was  an  encourage- 
ment for  the  neighboring  and  dependent  provinces  to  rebel.  On  July 
1st  and  2d  the  Servians  and  Montenegrins  declared  war  and  crossed  the 
Turkish  frontier.  On  August  31st  Murad  was  deposed,  and  Abdul 
Hamid  II  was  proclaimed  Sultan. 

During  the  recess  popular  indignation  was  stirred  to  the  utter- 
most by  the  Turkish  atrocities  in  Bulgaria.  The  war  with  Servia  still 
continued,  in  spite  of  the  friendly  intervention  of  the  great  European 
powers,  until  the  Servians  were  totally  defeated  and  Djunis  captured 
by  the  Turks   (October   i9th-24th). 

RUSSIA  MAKES  WAR  ON  TURKEY. 

The  embarrassment  of  Turkey  was  the  opportunity  of  Russia,  which 
now  interfered,  ostensibly  in  behalf  of  the  Christian  subjects  living  under 
the  Sultan.  The  Marquis  of  Salisbury  was  appointed  by  Her  Majesty  as 
her  special  ambassador  to  attend  a  conference  of  the  great  powers  at 
Constantinople  in  order  to  setde  the  Eastern  question.  The  conference 
commenced  December  23d,  but  its  proposals  were  rejected  by  the  Porte, 
and  it  concluded  its  sittings  January  20,  1877.  As  the  last  hope  of  avert- 
ing war  between   Russia  and  Turkey  the   six  great  European  powers 


<*> 

I 

C 

r 


c 


C 


2 


189S-LOUIS  PASTEUR  IN  HIS  LABORATURV 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  5^7 

signed  a  protocol  at  London  asserting  the  necessity  of  reforms  and  pro- 
viding for  mutual  disarmament  on  certain  conditions  (March  31st).  On 
the  determination  of  the  Porte  to  listen  to  no  such  proposals  (April 
1 2th),  Russia  declared  war  (April  24th),  while  the  other  great  powers 
determined  to  observe  a  strict  neutrality. 

OCCUPATION   OF  ROME. 

The  first  reverses  at  Weissemburg  and  Worth  in  1870  had  been 
followed  by  the  hasty  recall  of  the  French  troops  from  Rome,  and  the 
city  was  offered  to  the  Italian  Government  as  the  price  of  armed  assist- 
ance to  France.  But  Victor  Emanuel  had  already  declared  the  neutrality 
of  Italy.  It  would  have  been  imprudent  to  join  what  was  evidently  a 
losing  cause,  and  the  link  between  Italy  and  France  had  been  broken  at 
Mentana.  On  September  i  ith,  ten  days  after  the  capitulation  of  Sedan, 
Italian  troops  crossed  the  frontier  of  the  Papal  States.  Pius  IX  had  held 
an  ecumenical  council  in  the  previous  year  to  decree  the  dogma  of  Papal 
infallibility,  and  had  thus  decided  a  dispute  that  had  remained  unsolved 
since  the  famous  assemblies  of  Constance  and  Basel.  Such  a  man  was 
not  likely  to  resign  his  temporal  power  of  his  own  accord.  All  sugges- 
tions of  a  peaceful  compromise  were  met  with  the  invariable  answer  of 
non possutnus.  On  September  iSth  the  bombardment  of  Rome  com- 
menced, and  two  days  later  the  city  was  occupied.  A  plebiscite  declared 
for  annexation  to  the  Italian  kingdom  by  an  overwhelming  majority, 
and  the  next  year  the  capital  was  transferred  from  Florence  to  the  Eter- 
nal City. 

No  protest  was  made  against  this  natural  completion  of  the  Italian 
State.  Victor  Emanuel  carried  out  the  policy  of  Cavour,  left  the 
Pope  in  undisturbed  possession  of  the  Vatican,  and  ostentatiously  pro- 
claimed the  complete  independence  of  his  ecclesiastical  authority.  It  was 
a  great  blow  to  the  King  to  be  involved  in  hostile  relations  to  the  head  of 
his  church,  but  he  was  consoled  by  the  thought  that  he  had  obtained  the 
object  of  his  life. 

He  had  still  a  vast  amount  of  hard  labor  to  perform  in  weld- 
ing together  the  discordant  parts  of  his  Kingdom,  and  increasing  its 
material   prosperity. 

His  prosperous  reign  was  ended  by  a  sudden  death  on  January  9, 
1878,  when  the  crown  passed  to  his  eldest  son,  Humbert  I. 


508  STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

KING   AMADEUS. 

It  proved  a  very  difficult  task  to  fill  up  the  vacancy  on  the  Spanish 
throne,  which  had  been  productive  of  such  vast  results.  After  the  col- 
lapse of  the  Hohenzollern  candidature,  the  crown  was  offered  to  Victor 
Emanuel's  second  son,  Amadeus  of  Aosta  (born  in  1845).  The  offer  was 
accepted,  and  the  young  prince  did  his  best  to  perform  the  duties  which 
he  had  undertaken.  But  Spain  was  wholly  unfit  for  a  constitutional  mon- 
archy. Wearied  out  and  disgusted  by  the  incessant  factions  and 
intrigues,  Amadeus  resigned  his  crown  in  1873.  A  provisional  Republic 
was  now  formed,  of  which  Castelar  was  the  guiding  spirit.  But  Don 
Carlos  raised  his  standard  once  more  in  the  Basque  provinces,  while  the 
democrats  of  the  South  revolted  against  any  central  authority,  and  de- 
manded the  establishment  of  a  republican  federation.  At  last  the  restor- 
ation of  order  was  undertaken  by  the  army.  The  Cortes  were  dis- 
solved by  a  coup  d'etat,  Castelar  indignantly  threw  up  his  office,  and  a 
military  republic  was  established.  This  insured  the  unity  of  the  State, 
and  the  anarchy  of  the  federalists  was  suppressed.  But  it  was  obvious 
that  peace  could  not  be  finally  restored  except  by  the  restoration  of  the 
monarchy,  and  the  only  possible  candidate  was  the  young  Alfonso,  the 
son  of  the  exiled  Isabella.  In  December,  1874,  he  was  proclaimed  King 
as  Alfonso  XII.  The  first  business  of  the  new  monarch  was  to  termi- 
nate the  Carlist  war,  and  this  was  successfully  accomplished  in  1876. 
From  this  time  the  restored  monarchy  has  maintained  itself  in  Spain, 
and  has  satisfied  the  people,  though  without  exciting  any  enthusiastic 
devotion. 

GERMANY    AND    THE   VATICAN. 

The  German  Government,  under  Bismarck's  lead,  in  June,  1872,  en- 
acted a  law  suppressing  the  order  of  Jesuits  and  other  ecclesiastical 
bodies.  This  led,  in  December  following,  to  an  open  rupture  between 
the  German  Government  and  the  Vatican.  In  May  of  the  following 
year  the  German  Government  adopted  the  famous  "May  Laws"  o( 
Dr.  Falk,  directed  against  the  Catholic  Church.  Thus  was  begun  a 
political-ecclesiastical  conflict  which  was  waged  with  much  bitterness  for 
many  years,  and  which  ultimately  ended  in  the  triumph  of  the  Catholic 
Church  over  the  German  Government  in  the  total  repeal  of  the  ob- 
noxious laws. 


STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS.  5O9 

EMANCIPATION    IN    BRAZIL. 

The  Brazilian  Government  on  September  28,  1871,  passed  an  act 
providing  for  the  gradual  abolition  of  slavery  in  that  Empire. 

The  Cuban  war  which  had  been  dragging  on  for  some  time  assumed 
a  new  phase  in  1873.  On  October  31st  of  that  year  a  Spanish  gunboat 
seized  a  ship  under  the  American  flag,  which  was  charged  with  carry!  1114 
filibusters  into  Cuba.  The  passengers  and  crew  of  the  ship,  chiclly 
American  citizens,  were  taken  to  Cuba  as  prisoners,  and  many  of  them 
savagely  put  to  death  without  trial.  Relations  between  the  United  States 
and  Spain  were  strained  almost  to  the  breaking  point,  but  war  was  finally 
averted  by  Spain's  yielding  to  the  American  demands  on  November  29th. 
The  American  ship  which  had  been  seized,  the  "Virginius,"  was  sur- 
rendered by  Spain  on  December  i6th. 

The  Russian  Government  achieved  the  conquest  of  Khiva  in  1873. 
In  the  same  year  the  Dutch  Government  became  involved  in  the  Atcheen 
war  with  natives  in  its  East  Indian  Empire,  a  war  which  is  still  dragging 
its  interminable  length  along. 


CHAPTER  XXXIX. 


Conpletion  of  Pacific  Railroad  and  Suez  Canal — Obituary — Baker  on  the 

Nile — Chicago  Fire— Mont  Cenis  Tunnel — Hoosac  Tunnel — Polar 

Exploration — Stanley's  Search  for    Livingstone — End    of 

Livingstone's  Career — Death  of  Livingstone — Two 

Great    Fires  —  The    Centennial  of    Inde* 

pendence  —  Various    Doings    in 

Various    Lands. 


THE  eight  years  with  which  the  present  chapter  deals  were  full 
of  interest  to  the  general  progress  of  the  world.  They  were 
marked  with  the  completion  of  several  of  the  greatest  engineer- 
ing undertakings  in  history.  Foremost  among  these  was  the 
completion  of  the  Pacific  Railroad,  in  1869,  by  which  achievement  the 
two  coasts  of  the  American  continent  were  connected  with  an  iron 
highway,  and  the  old  caravans  across  the  plains,  or  the  long  voyages 
around  Cape  Horn  or  across  the  Central  American  Isthmus  were 
obviated.  The  last  link  in  this  great  highway  was  forged  at  Promon- 
tory, Utah,  when  the  last  spike,  a  golden  one,  was  driven  with  a  silver 
hammer,  and  two  locomotives,  one  from  the  east  and  one  from  the 
west,  came  together  front  to  front.  The  part  this  road  has  played 
in  the  development  of  the  United  States  cannot  be  over-estimated. 
Vast  areas  which  were  once  vaguely  referred  to  as  the  Great  Ameri- 
can Desert  were  opened  up  to  settlement,  and  were  soon  trans- 
formed into  prosperous  commonwealths.  Other  roads  were  afterward 
built  across  the  United  States,  until  at  the  present  time  they  number 
half  a  dozen,  with  others  in   prospect. 

The  same  year  saw  the  opening,  with  imposing  ceremonies,  of 
the  Suez  Canal,  by  means  of  which  a  direct  international  waterway 
was  opened  from  the  Mediterranean  Sea  to  the  Indian  Ocean  by  way 
of  the  Red  Sea.  This  route  greatly  shortened  the  trip  from  Europe 
to  India  and  China,  and  was  of  especial  importance  to  Great    Britain, 

510 


JP.KEMBLE 


RICHARD  MANSFIELD 


1895— POPULAR  ACTORS  AXIJ  ACTRESSES  OF  THE  XINETEEXTH  CEXTURY 


,896— ITALIANS  FIGHTING  AGAINST  KING  MENELIK  IN  AUVSSINIA 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  5  1 3 

because  of  her  paramount  interests  in  Asia.  It  had  the  effect  of 
lessening  the  importance  of  Constantinople  and  of  increasing  that  of 
Egypt  as  the  "key  of  Asia."  Thereafter  British  solicitude  for  the 
safety  of  Constantinople  waned,  while  British  determination  to  control 
Egypt  correspondingly  increased. 

OBITUARY. 

The  death  roll  for  1869  included  three  names  of  the  first  rank — 
viz.,  Franklin  Pierce,  formerly  President  of  the  United  States  ;  Lamar- 
tine,  the  great  French  statesman  and  historian,  whose  name  is  insepar- 
ably connected  with  the  overthrow  of  the  Bourbon  dynasty  in  France ; 
and  of  Sainte-Beuve,  the  Frenchman  of  letters,  who  is  probably  to  be 
ranked  for  all  time  as  the  foremost  of  literary  critics,  indeed  as  the 
founder  of  the  art  of  intelligent  and  discriminating  literary  criticism. 

BAKER  ON  THE  NILE. 

Sir  Samuel  Baker  has  already  been  mentioned  as  one  of  the 
most  energetic  and  effective  of  African  explorers,  and  one  of  the  dis- 
coverers of  the  great  lakes  which  form  a  conspicuous  part  of  the 
upper  Nile  system.  In  1870  he  was  again  sent  thither  by  th*e  British 
Government,  nominally  under  Egyptian  direction,  to  survey  the  Nile, 
open  it  to  commerce,  and  to  establish  Egyptian  sovereignty  in  the 
Eastern  Soudan.  He  did  a  great  engineering  work  in  cutting  a  pass- 
age through  the  gigantic  masses  of  "sud"  or  vegetable  accumulations 
which  completely  blocked  the  channel  of  the  Nile,  and  thus  made  the 
river  navigable  up  to  the  lakes.  Finding  the  Soudan  occupied  only 
by  discordant  tribes,  without  any  general  government,  he  had  little 
difficulty  in  annexing  a  vast  domain  to  Egypt.  In  so  doing  he  per- 
formed a  great  work  for  civilization.  At  the  same  time  he  opened 
the  way  for  the  great  drama  of  later  years,  when  the  Mahdi  arose 
against  Egyptian  rule,  and  Gordon  was  sacrificed  at  Khartoun  ,  and 
the  reconquest  of  the  Soudan  was  finally  effected  at  incalculable  cost. 

In     1870    also    occurred    the    deaths    of    Dickens    and    the    elder 

Dumas,  the  greatest  novelists  of  England  and  France  respectively ;  of 

Admiral  Farragut,  the  foremost  naval  commander  on    the    Union    side 

in  the  Civil  War,  and  of  General  Lee,  the  chieftain  of  the  Confederate 

armies. 

27 


514  STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

CHICAGO  FIRE. 

The  year  1871  was  made  memorable  in  the  United  States  by  the 
great  fire  in  the  city  of  Chicago.  This  began  on  the  evening  of 
Sunday,  October  8,  in  a  barn  in  the  outskirts  of  the  city.  It  was 
caused  by  a  cow  kicl<ing  over  a  lamp,  by  the  light  of  which  the  ani- 
mal was  being  milked.  The  fire  raged  during  the  two  following  days. 
It  burned  over  the  heart  of  the  city,  comprising  an  area  of  about 
three  and  a  half  square  miles.  No  fewer  than  17,450  buildings  were 
destroyed.  More  than  two  hundred  lives  were  lost,  and  nearly  100,000 
persons  were  rendered  entirely  homeless.  The  money  loss  aggregated 
more  than  ;^ 2 00, coo, 000.  This  was  by  far  the  largest  and  most  destruc- 
tive fire  recorded  in  the  history  of  the  world.  It  almost  annihilated  the 
city.  But  relief  was  proffered  in  abundant  measure  from  all  parts  of  the 
country  and  indeed  of  the  world.  The  citizens  of  Chicago  displayed  an 
energy  and  enterprise  in  rebuilding  such  as  never  has  been  paralleled, 
and  the  city  was  soon  restored  to  greater  size  and  splendor  than 
before  the  fire. 

MONT  CENIS  TUNNEL. 

An  engineering  work  easily  comparable  with  those  already 
mentioned  was  the  construction  of  the  tunnel  under  Mont  Cenis. 
This  gigantic  work,  which  gave  for  the  first  time  direct  railroad  com- 
munication across  the  Alps,  was  first  suggested  in  1840.  The  work 
was  actually  begun  by  King  Victor  Emanuel  on  August  31,  1857. 
Until  i860  at  the  north  and  until  1862  at  the  south  end,  all  drilling 
was  done  by  hand.  Then  power  drills  were  introduced  and  the  work 
proceeded  more  rapidly.  The  two  headings,  from  the  two  sides  of 
the  mountains,  met  on  December  25,  1870,  and  so  accurate  had  the 
work  of  the  surveyors  been  that  the  difference  in  level  of  the  two  was 
scarcely  twelve  inches.  The  tunnel  was  formally  opened  for  use  on 
September  17,  1871.  Its  length  is  nearly  eight  miles,  and  its  cost 
was  about  $1100  per  running  yard. 

HOOSAC  TUNNEL. 

We  may  at  this  point  fittingly  mention  two  other  great  tunnels 
of  about  the  same  time.  One  of  these  was  the  Hoosac  Tunnel,  through 
the  Hoosac  Mountains,  in  western  Massachusetts.     The  Massachusetts 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  5  1 5 

Legislature  had  agreed  upon  the  desirabiHty  of  it  in  1825.  In  1850 
the  site  was  selected.  Work  was  begun  in  1855,  and  abandoned  in 
1 86 1.  The  State  took  the  work  in  hand  officially  in  1863,  and  com- 
pleted it  on  November  27,  1873.  The  tunnel  is  four  and  a  half  miles 
long,  and  cost  $14,000,000. 

Work  was  begun  in  1869  by  United  States  army  engineers  on  a 
tunnel  under  the  rocks  of  Hell  Gate,  in  the  East  River,  New  York. 
A  system  of  intersecting  tunnels  was  constructed,  measuring  7426  feet 
in  length.  The  whole  system  was  charged  with  dynamite  and  ex- 
ploded on  September  24,  1876. 

Still  another  tunnel,  the  longest  in  the  world,  may  also  be 
mentioned.  This  is  the  Rothschoenberg  Tunnel,  built  to  drain  some 
mines  in  Saxony.  It  was  begun  in  1844  and  was  finished  at  the 
beginning  of  1877.  It  is  no  less  than  thirty-one  and  a  half  miles  in 
length.  The  Sutro  Tunnel,  four  miles  long,  for  draining  mines  in 
Nevada,  was  completed  in  June,  1879. 

POLAR   EXPLORATION. 

Interest  in  Polar  research  never  seemed  to  flag.  In  1871  the 
American  expedition  under  Captain  Hall  made  its  way  as  far  north 
as  latitude  82°   16'. 

The  next  year  the  Austrian  expedition  of  Weyprecht  and  Paver 
set  out  for  the  north.  It  was  absent  for  several  years,  and  had  a 
most  successful  career.  In  1873  it  discovered  and  partially  explored 
Francis  Joseph  Land,  and  in    1874  it  reached  its  highest  latitude,  82°  5'. 

The  next  venture  was  a  record-breaking  one.  In  1875  the  Brit- 
i.sh  Captain  Nares  set  out  for  the  north  of  Greenland  by  way  of 
Baffin  Bay,  in  Mr.  Leigh  Smith's  yacht,  the  "  Eira."  It  reached  a 
high  latitude,  and  in  1876  a  detachment  of  it  on  sledges  reached  83° 
20',  the  highest  latitude  ever  attained  down  to  that  date. 

STANLEY'S  SEARCH   FOR   LIVINGSTONE. 

The  African  researches  of  Dr.  Livingstone  had  interested  all  the 
world.  In  1870  that  illustrious  explorer  seemed  to  have  become  lost  to 
view.  Accordingly  James  Gordon  Bennett,  editor  of  the  "  New  York 
Herald,"  sent  a  relief  expedition  to  find  him  and  relieve  his  wants.  The 
head  of  this  expedition  was   Henry   M.   Stanley,  a  young  newspaper 


^16  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

correspondent,  who  had  distinguished  himself  as  an  enterprising  corres- 
pondent in  the  British  war  with  Abyssinia.  He  was  of  Welsh  nativity, 
but  was  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  in  which  country  he  had  spent 
most  of  his  hfe.  His  march  into  the  heart  of  the  African  wilderness  in 
search  of  Livingstone,  and  its  success,  form  one  of  the  most  romantic 
chapters  in  the  history  of  adventure. 

END  OF  LIVINGSTONE'S  CAREER. 

We  have  hitherto  followed  in  general  Livingstone's  marvellous 
work  in  Africa.  He  recrossed  Lake  Tanganyika  in  July,  1869,  and 
through  the  country  of  the  Manyuema  he  tried  in  vain,  for  a  whole  year, 
to  reach  and  cross  the  Lualaba,  baffled  partly  by  the  natives,  partly  by 
the  slave-hunters,  and  partly  by  his  long  illnesses.  It  was,  indeed,  not 
till  March  29,  1871,  that  he  succeeded  in  reaching  the  Lualaba,  at  the 
town  of  Nyangwe,  where  he  stayed  four  months,  vainly  trying  to  get  a 
canoe  to  take  him  across.  It  was  here  that  a  party  of  Arab  slavers, 
without  warning  or  provocation,  assembled  one  day  when  the  market  was 
busiest  and  commenced  shooting  down  the  poor  women,  hundreds  being 
killed  or  drowned  in  trying  to  escape.  Livingstone  had  "the  impression 
that  he  was  in  hell."  but  was  helpless,  though  his  "first  impulse  was  to 
pistol  the  murderers."  The  account  of  this  scene  which  he  sent  home 
roused  indignation  in  Eng-land  to  such  a  degree  as  to  lead  to  determined 
and  to  a  considerable  extent  successful  efforts  to  get  the  Sultan  of  Zanzi- 
bar to  suppress  the  trade.  In  sickened  disgust  the  weary  traveller  made 
his  way  back  to  Ujiji,  which  he  reached  on  October  13.  Five  days 
after  his  arrival  in  Ujiji  he  was  cheered  and  inspired  with  new  life, 
and  completely  set  up  again,  as  he  said,  by  the  timely  arrival  of  Mr. 
Stanley.  Mr.  Stanley's  residence  with  Livingstone  was  almost  the 
only  bright  episode  of  these  last  sad  years.  With  Stanley,  Living- 
stone explored  the  north  end  of  Tanganyika,  and  proved  conclusively 
that  the  Lusize  runs  into  and  not  out  of  it.  In  the  end  of  the  year 
the  two  started  eastward  for  Unyanyembe,  where  Stanley  provided 
Livingstone  with  an  ample  supply  of  goods,  and  bade  him  farewell. 

DEATH  OF  LIVINGSTONE. 

Stanley  left  on  March   15,  1872,  and  after  Livingstone  had  waited 
wearily  at  Unyanyembe  for   five    months,    a    troop    of  fifty-seven  men 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  SlJ 

and  boys  arrived,  good  and  faithful  fellows  on  the  whole,  selected  by 
Stanley  himself.  Thus  attended,  he  started  on  August  15  for  Lake 
Bangweolo,  proceeding  along  the  east  side  of  Tanganyika.  His  old 
enemy  dysentery  soon  found  him  out.  In  January  1873  the  party  got 
among  the  endless  spongy  jungle  on  the  east  of  Lake  Bangweolo, 
Livingstone's  object  being  to  go  round  by  the  south  and  away  west 
to  find  the  '"fountains."  Vexatious  delays  took  place,  and  the  journey 
became  one  constant  wade  below,  under  an  almost  endless  pour  of 
rain  from  above.  The  Doctor  got  worse  and  worse,  but  no  idea  of 
danger  seems  to  have  occurred  to  him.  At  last,  in  the  middle  of 
April,  he  had  unwillingly  to  submit  to  be  carried  in  a  rude  litter. 
On  April  29  Chitambo's  village  on  the  Lulimala,  in  llala,  on  the  south 
shore  of  the  lake,  was  reached.  The  last  entry  in  the  journal  is  April 
27: — "Knocked  up  quite,  and  remain — recover — sent  to  buy  milch 
goats.  We  are  on  the  banks  of  the  Molilamo."  On  April  30  he 
with  difficulty  wound  up  his  watch,  and  early  on  the  morning  of  May  i 
the  boys  found  "the  great  master,"  as  they  called  him,  kneeling  by 
the  side  of  his  bed,  dead.  His  faithful  men  preserved  the  body  in  the 
sun  as  well  as  they  could,  and  wrapping  it  carefully  up,  carried  it  and  all 
his  papers,  instruments,  and  other  things  across  Africa  to  Zanzibar.  It 
was  borne  to  England  with  all  honor,  and  on  April  18,  1874,  was  depos- 
ited in  Westminster  Abbey,  amid  tokens  of  mourning  and  admiration  such 
as  England  accords  only  to  her  greatest  sons.  Government  bore  all  the 
funeral  e.xpenses.  His  faithfully  kept  journals  during  these  seven  years' 
wanderings  were  published  under  the  title  of  the  "Last  Journals  of 
David  Livingstone  in  Central  Africa,"  in  1874,  edited  by  his  old  friend, 
the  Rev.   Horace  Waller. 

In  spite  of  his  sufferings  and  the  many  compulsory  delays.  Living, 
stone's  discoveries  during  these  last  years  were  both  e.xtensive  and  of 
prime  importance  as  leading  to  a  solution  of  African  hydrography. 
No  single  African  explorer  has  ever  done  so  much  for  African 
geography  as  Livingstone  during  his  thirty  years'  work.  His  travels 
covered  one  third  of  the  continent,  extending  from  the  Cape  to  near 
the  equator,  and  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Indian  Ocean.  Livingstone 
was  no  hurried  traveller  ;  he  did  his  journeying  leisurely,  carefully  ob- 
serving and  recording  all  that  was  worthy  of  note,  with  rare  geograph- 
ical instinct  and  the  eye  of  a  trained  scientific    observer,  studying   the 


51 8  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

ways  of  the  people,  eating  their  food,  Hving  in  their  huts,  and  sympa- 
thizing with  their  joys  and  sorrows.  It  will  be  long  till  the  tradition 
of  his  sojourn  dies  out  among  the  native  tribes,  who  almost,  without 
exception,  treated  Livingstone  as  a  superior  being  ;  his  treatment  of 
them  was  always  tender,  gentle,  and  gentlemanly.  But  the  direct  gains 
to  geography  and  science  are  perhaps  not  the  greatest  results  of 
Livingstone's  journeys.  He  conceived,  developed,  and  carried  out  to 
success  a  noble  and  many-sided  purpose,  with  unflinching  and  self- 
sacrificing  energy  and  courage  that  entitled  him  to  take  rank  among 
the  great  and  strong  who  single-handed  have  been  able  materially  to^ 
influence  human  progress,  and  the  advancement  of  knowledge.  His 
example  and  his  death  have  acted  like  an  inspiration,  filling  Africa 
with  an  army  of  explorers  and  missionaries,  and  raising  in  Europe  so 
powerful  a  feeling  against  slave-trade  that  it  may  be  considered  as 
having  received  its  deathblow.  Personally  Livingstone  was  a  pure 
and  tender-hearted  man,  full  of  humanity  and  sympathy.  The  motto  of 
his  life  was  his  advice  to  some  school  children  in  Scotland. — "  Fear  God, 
and  work  hard." 

TWO  GREAT  FIRSTS. 

Two  more  destructive  fires  are  now  to  be  recorded.  One  broke 
out  in  the  heart  of  the  city  of  Boston  on  November  9,  1872,  and  de- 
stroyed 800  buildings  and  inflicted  a  loss  of  ;^8o,ooo,ooo. 

The  second  was  the  burning  of  the  Brooklyn  Theatre,  in  the  city 
of  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  This  occurred  on  the  night  of  December  5,  1876, 
and  destroyed  295  human  lives. 

The  death  list  of  1871  included  the  names  of  Herschel,  the  astron- 
omer; Auber,  the  composer,  and  Grote,  the  historian.  In  1872  died 
Horace  Greeley,  the  editor  of  the  "New  York  Tribune;"  Mazzini,  the 
Italian  revolutionist  and  liberator ;  and  General  Meade,  the  hero  of 
Gettysburg. 

The  year  1872  was  marked  with  a  great  eruption  of  Mount 
Vesuvius,  one  of  the  most  extensive  and  most  destructive  in  the 
modern  history  of  that   volcano. 

An  International  Exhibition  was  held  in  Vienna  in  1873,  and 
proved  a  great  success. 

In  the  latter  years  occurred  the  deaths  of  Bulwer-Lytton,  the  English 
novelist;  John  Stuart  Mill,  the  English  philosopher  and  political  econom- 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  519 

1st ;  Manzoni,  the  Italian  novelist,  poet  and  dramatist,  and  Agasslz,  the 
Swiss-American  scientist.  Louis  Napoleon,  ex-Emperor  of  France,  died 
in  the  same  year. 

THE  CENTENNIAL  OF   INDEPENDENCE. 

The  centenary  of  the  signing  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence 
was  celebrated  In  the  United  States  on  July  4,  1876,  with  unprece- 
dented popular  festivities.  A  feature  of  the  occasion  was  the  holding 
of  a  world's  fair  in  the  city  of  Philadelphia,  from  May  to  November 
of  that  year.  This  was  the  largest  and  most  successful  Universal 
Exhibition  the  world  had  at  that  time  ever  seen.  The  buildings 
covered  more  than  seventy  acres  of  ground,  there  were  30,864  exhibi- 
tors, from  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  the  unprecedented  number  of 
10,164,489  persons  entered  it  during  the  159  days  on  which  it  was 
open.  These  figures  simply  dwarfed  those  of  the  previous  shows  in 
Paris,  London,  and  elsewhere. 

At  this  exhibition  the  newly-invented  telephone  was  for  the  first 
time  publicly  exhibited.  The  electric  light  at  this  time  began  to  be  con- 
sidered a  practical  possibility.  The  reaping  machine,  Invented  and  in 
general  use  long  before,  now  reached  its  highest  development,  and 
other  mechanical  and  scientific  devices  were  made  known  to  the  world. 

VARIOUS  DOINGS  IN   VARIOUS    LANDS. 

In  1874  the  Dutch  war  in  Atcheen  took  a  favorable  turn  and  was 
nearly  ended.  Lieutenant  Cameron  in  1875  completed  a  noteworthy 
journey  across  the  African  continent.  In  1875-6  the  Khedive  Ismail, 
of  Egypt,  waged  an  unsuccessful  war  of  intended  conquest  against 
Abyssinia  and  was  badly  beaten.  Russia  annexed  Khokan  in  1876, 
and  Porfirio  Diaz  became  President  of  Mexico. 

The  necrology  of  these  years  includes  in  1874  the  names  of  ex- 
President  Eillmore,  Charles  Sumner,  and  Guizot,  the  French  historian 
and  statesman.  In  1875  ex-President  Johnson,  Lyell,  the  geologist,  and 
Andersen,  the  writer  of  fairy-tales  died.  In  1876  died  Deak,  the  Hun- 
garian statesman,  and  George  Sand,  the  French  novelist. 


CHAPTER  XL. 


Rutherford    B.   Hayes    becomes    President   of   the    United    States  —  Civil 
Service  Reform — Free  Coinage  of    Silver — Specie   Payments — In- 
cidents of  the   Administration — Labor   Troubles — Knights 
of  Labor — Growth  of  the   Order — First  General 
Assembly — Presidential    Election. 


RUTHERFORD  B.  HAYES  began  his  term  as  President  of  the 
United  States  on  March  4,  1877.  We  have  already  told  of  the 
circumstances  under  which  he  was  elected  and  declared  elected. 
Threats  of  resistance  to  his  inauguration  were  made,  but  proved 
idle.  To  the  end  a  large  part  of  the  nation  refused  to  regard  him  as  the 
morally  rightful  President,  but  his  legal  authority  as  the  actual  President 
was  never  challenged.  His  administration  was,  on  the  whole,  wise  and 
prudent,  and  greatly  advanced  the  political  welfare  of  the  nation.  The 
Federal  troops  were  withdrawn  from  the  Southern  States,  and  the  fullest 
measure  of  home  rule  was  there  re-established.  The  so-called  Green- 
back Craze,  a  popular  demand  for  irredeemable  paper  money,  swept 
over  the  country  and  materially  affected  Congressional  legislation.  The 
President,  however,  resisted  it  and  stood  persistently  for  a  gold  basis  for 
the  national  currency. 

CIVIL  SERVICE   REFORM. 

A  noteworthy  feature  of  the  Hayes  administration  was  the  first 
practical  step  toward  Civil  Service  Reform.  This  was  made  in  a  Presi- 
dential order  forbidding  Federal  office-holders  to  take  part  in  political 
campaigns  to  the  neglect  of  their  official  duties. 

Ex-President  Grant  left  this  country  early  in  1877  for  a  tour  around 
the  world,  in  which  he  was  received  everywhere  with  official  and  popular 
honors  never  before  accorded  to  any  traveller. 

A  war  with  the  Nez  Perces  Indians  broke  out  in  May,  1877,  and 
lasted    until    October,   when    it   was    ended    by  the   energetic   work  of 

520 


STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YKARS.  52 1 

General    Miles,  after  one   of  the   most  remarkable   campaigns    in   the 
history  of  our  Indian  wars. 

FREE  COINAGE  OF  SILVER. 

A  memorable  political  incident  was  the  introduction  of  a  bill  in 
Congress,  by  Representative  Bland,  of  Missouri,  on  November  5,  1877, 
for  the  free  coinage  of  silver  into  dollars  at  the  ratio  of  16  to  i — that  is, 
that  sixteen  ounces  of  silver  should  be  reckoned  equal  in  value  to  one 
ounce  of  gold.  The  free  coinage  of  silver,  long  practically  suspended, 
had  been  discontinued  by  act  of  Congress  in  1873.  Mr.  Bland's  reso- 
lution was  adopted.  President  Hayes  vetoed  it,  and  on  February  28, 
1878,  it  was  passed  over  the  President's  veto  and  became  a  law.  In  this 
episode  was  the  origin  of  the  silver  question  which  has  since  been  so 
conspicuous  a  feature  of  American  politics. 

SPECIE  PAYMENTS. 

President  Hayes,  in  his  annual  message  of  December  3,  1877, 
recommended  the  resumption  of  specie  payments  by  the  Government, 
which  had  been  suspended  since  early  in  the  Civil  War,  to  take  effect  on 
January  i,  1879.  This  action  of  the  Government  was  vigorously  opposed 
by  the  enemies  of  the  administration,  and  was  declared  to  be  imprac- 
ticable and  impossible.  But  the  President  and  his  supporters  persevered, 
and  such  resumption  of  specie  payments  was  successfully  effected  on  the 
date  mentioned  without  the  least  disturbance  of  the  finances  of  the  nation, 
but,  on  the  contrary,  with  a  great  general  gain  for  sound  business 
methods. 

The  National  Greenback  Party,  favoring  the  use  of  irredeemable 
paper  as  currency,  was  organized  on  February  22,  1878,  and  for  some 
years  played  an  important  part  in  national  politics. 

INCIDENTS  OF  THE  ADMINISTRATION. 

Among  the  incidents  which  marked  the  Hayes  administration  was 
the  payment  of  $5,000,000  to  Great  Britain,  in  November,  1877,  as  an 
award  under  the  Treaty  of  Washington,  for  American  use  of  Canadian 
fisheries.  In  May,  1878,  a  Congressional  investigation  of  alleged  frauds 
in  the  Presidential  election  of  1S76  was  begun.  The  investigation  lasted 
a  long  time,  but  its  results  were  inconclusive.      In  June,  1878,  an  act  of 


522  STORV  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

Congress  forbade  the  use  of  the  Federal  army  as  a  posse  comitatus  to 
execute  laws,  except  as  expressly  provided  by  the  Constitution.  At  the 
same  time  the  Life  Saving  Service  was  greatly  extended  and  organized. 
That  summer  a  serious  epidemic  of  yellow  fever  prevailed  in  the 
Southern  States. 

The  first  regular  Embassy  from  China  to  the  United  States  arrived 
at  Washington  in  September,  1878.  Soon  after  a  bill  was  introduced 
into  Congress  to  prohibit  further  Chinese  immigration  into  the  United 
States.  The  progress  of  the  debate  thereon  was  marked,  on  February 
14,  1879,  by  the  first  occupancy  of  a  Senatorial  chair  by  a  negro,  the 
Senator  in  question  being  Mr.  B.  K.  Bruce,  of  Mississippi.  The  next 
day  women  were  permitted,  by  act  of  Congress,  to  practice  before  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States.  The  Chinese  exclusion  bill  was 
adopted  by  Congress,  but  was  vetoed  by  the  President  on  March  i,  1879. 
Three  days  later  the  National  Health  Board  was  created. 

LABOR  TROUBLES. 

The  year  1877  was  marked  with  some  of  the  most  serious  labor 
troubles  in  the  history  of  the  country.  Early  in  that  year  ten  leaders  of 
the  criminal  organization  known  as  Molly  Maguires  were  hanged  in 
Pennsylvania.  That  incident  had  no  real  relation  to  honest  labor 
interests.  But  soon  thereafter  strikes,  accompanied  with  violence,  began 
in  various  industries  and  in  various  parts  of  the  country. 

The  first  grreat  railroad  strike  in  the  United  States  began  at  Martins- 
burg,  W.  Va.,  on  July  16,  1877,  when  the  locomotive  firemen  went  out 
on  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio  road.  Within  a  week  this  strike  had  spread 
t  )  the  Pennsylvania,  Erie,  Lake  Shore,  Pittsburg,  Fort  Wayne  &  Chicago, 
Cincinnati  &  St.  Louis,  Vandalia,  Ohio  &  Mississippi,  C,  C,  C.  &  I., 
Erie  &  Pittsburg,  Philadelphia  &  Erie,  Chicago  &  Alton,  Canada 
Southern  and  other  minor  lines.  The  troops  were  called  out  at  Martins- 
burg,  and  against  their  efforts  to  preserve  order  the  mob  of  strikers  were 
successful.  The  Fifth  Maryland  Regiment  was  mobbed  in  the  streets  of 
Baltimore  while  marching  to  the  depot  to  leave  for  the  scene  of  trouble. 
The  National  Guard  of  Pennsylvania  was  mobbed  in  the  streets  of  Pitts- 
burg, and  the  momentous  nature  of  the  disturbance,  closely  approximat- 
ing civil  war  in  Pittsburg,  speedily  made  itself  felt  all  over  the  United 
States.     It  was  in  Pittsburg   thnt   tln'   railroad   round-houses  and  freight- 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS  523 

cars  were  burned,  that  the  lives  of  the  First  City  Troop  of  Philadelphia 
were  seriously  imperilled,  and  that  a  total  damage  was  done  amounting,  it 
is  said,  to  not  less  than  ^5,000,000  to  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company 
alone.  When  the  United  States  troops  arrived  the  mobs  dispersed,  and 
quiet  was  finally  restored.  It  is  difficult  to  form  any  accurate  idea  of 
the  aggregate  of  destruction  to  property  which  resulted  from  the  railroad 
strike  of  1877.  Two  million  dollars  of  the  railroad  company's  ;^5, 000,000 
loss  the  ta.xpayers  of  Allegheny  county  were  compelled  to  pay.  The 
interruption  to  travel,  the  mental  disturbances  occasioned  to  nervous 
people,  the  general  moral  deterioration  which  seems  to  follow  all  such 
popular  outbursts  on  the  part  of  those  who  indulge  in  them,  must  be 
added  as  items  of  loss  to  the  grand  aggregate  of  property  ruined  and 
wages  and  lives  lost.  Twelve  men  were  killed  in  Baltimore  alone  on 
July  20th.  The  slaughter  in  Pittsburg  on  the  21st  of  the  same  month 
was  deplorable,  and  was  said  at  the  time  to  be  due  to  a  blunder  of  the 
militia.  It  is  noticeable  that  the  men  on  the  New  York  Central  Railroad 
did  not  join  in  this  strike.  In  return  for  their  loyalty  to  their  employers 
jji  1 00,000  in  cash  was  divided  among  them. 

KNIGHTS  OF  LABOR. 

The  year  1877  was  notable,  too,  for  the  general  organization  of  the 
order  of  Knights  of  Labor.  This  order  was  born  on  Thanksgiving  Day, 
1869,  in  the  city  of  Philadelphia,  and  was  the  result  of  the  efforts  of 
Uriah  S.  Stephens,  as  the  leader,  and  six  associates,  all  garment-cutters. 
For  several  years  previous  to  this  date  the  garment-cutters  of  Philadel- 
phia had  been  organized  as  a  trades  union,  but  had  failed  to  maintain  a 
satisfactory  rate  of  wages  in  their  trade.  A  feeling  of  dissatisfaction 
prevailed,  which  resulted,  in  the  fall  of  1S69,  in  a  vote  to  disband  the 
union.  Stephens,  foreseeing  this  result,  had  quietly  prepared  the  out- 
lines of  a  plan  foran  organization  embracing  "all  branches  of  honorable 
toil,"  and  based  upon  education,  which,  through  co-operation  and  an  intel- 
ligent use  of  the  ballot,  should  gradually  abolish  the  present  wage  system. 

GROWTH   OF   THE  ORDER. 

Mr.  Stephens'  associates,  or  those  who  agreed  with  him  to  form  a 
secret  society  to  take  the  place  of  the  disbanded  Garment  cutters'  Union, 
were  James  L.  Wright,  Robert  C.  Macauley,  Joseph  S.  Kennedy,  William 


524  STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED   YEARS. 

Cook,  Robert  W.  Keen  and  James  M.  Hilsee.  At  a  subsequent  meet- 
ing, held  December  28,  1869,  upon  the  report  of  a  Committee  on  Ritual, 
involving  obligations  and  oaths,  Mr.  Stephens  and  his  six  associates  sub- 
scribed their  names  to  the  obligations  ;  and,  when  the  ritual  was  adopted, 
Mr.  James  L.  Wright  moved  that  the  new  order  be  named  the  "  Knights 
of  Labor." 

Mr.  Stephens  brought  into  the  ritual  of  the  new  order  many  of  the 
features  of  speculative  Masonry,  especially  in  the  forms  and  ceremonies 
observed.  The  obligations  were  in  the  nature  of  oaths,  taken  with  all 
solemnity  upon  the  Bible.  The  members  were  sworn  to  the  strictest 
secrecy.  The  name  even  of  the  order  was  not  to  be  divulged  ;  and  it 
was  for  a  long  time  referred  to  in  the  literature  of  the  Knights  of  Labor, 
in  their  circulars,  meetings,  reports,  and  conversation,  as  "  Five  Stars," 
five  stars  being  used  in  all  printing  and  writing  to  designate  the  name  of 
the  order.  There  were  also  introduced  into  the  ritual  many  classical  ex- 
pressions taken  from  the  Greek. 

No  details  or  general  laws  for  the  government  of  the  order  appear 
to  have  been  adopted  until  the  formation  of  the  first  Local  Assembly  in 
1873;  but  the  plan  presented  at  the  meeting  in  November,  1869,  was 
heartily  approved,  and  adopted  by  Stephens'  associates.  Meetings  were 
held  weekly;  and  on  January  13,  1870,  the  new  organization  chose  its 
officers  to  the  several  positions  called  for  by  the  ritual,  as  follows  :  Ven- 
erable Sage,  Past-officer,  James  L.  Wright ;  Master  Workman,  U.  S. 
Stephens ;  Worthy  Foreman,  Robert  W.  Keen  ;  Worthy  Inspector, 
William  Cook ;  Unknown  Knight,  Joseph  Kennedy.  The  office  of  Sta- 
tistician was  created  February  3d,  and  the  position  filled  by  the  election 
of  Robert  C.   Macauley. 

FIRST    GENERAL    ASSEMBLY. 

The  Local  Assemblies  were  soon  organized,  as  they  grew  in  num- 
bers, into  District  Assemblies,  and  late  in  1877  a  ^^^^  was  issued  for  all 
District  Assemblies  then  existing  to  choose  delegates,  who  should  meet 
in  convention  and  organize  a  General  Assembly.  These  delegates 
met  at  Reading,  Pennsylvania,  January  1,  1878,  and  organized  the  first 
General  Assembly.  Mr.  Stephens,  the  founder,  was  called  to  the  chair, 
pending  permanent  organization.  The  delegates  were  in  session  four 
days,  the  following  officers  being  chosen  :     Grand  Master   Workman, 


STORY    OF   ONE    HUNDRED   YEARS.  525 

Uriah  S.  Stephens,  of  Philadelphia ;  Grand  Worthy  Foreman,  Ralph 
Beaumont,  of  Elmira,  New  York  ;  Grand  Secretary,  Charles  H.  Litch- 
man,  of  Marblehead,  Massachusetts  ;  Grand  Assistant  Secretary,  John 
G.  Laning,  of  Clifton,  West  Virginia  ;  Grand  Treasurer,  Thomas  M. 
Gallag-her,  of  St.  Louis,  Missouri. 

When  the  third  annual  session  of  the  General  Assembly  was  held  at 
Chicago  in  September,  1879,  Terrence  V.  Powderly  was  elected  to  suc- 
ceed Mr.  Stephens  as  General  Master  Workman.  The  order  had  at 
this  time  700  Local  Assemblies,  and  a  membership  of  many  thousands. 

PRESIDENTIAL    ELECTION. 

The  Presidential  campaign  of  1880  was  marked  with  two  noteworthy 
features.  One  was  the  candidacy  of  ex-President  Grant  for  nomination 
for  a  third  term,  which  was  defeated  only  after  an  exciting  struggle  in  the 
Republican  National  Convention.  The  other  was  the  appearance  of  the 
Greenback  party,  with  a  formidable  following,  in  the  field  as  a  third 
party. 

The  Republican  candidates  for  President  and  Vice-President  were 
James  A.  Garfield,  of  Ohio,  and  Chester  A.  Arthur,  of  New  York.  The 
Democratic  candidates  were  General  W.  S.  Hancock,  of  New  York,  and 
W.  H.  English,  of  Indiana.  The  Greenbackers  nominated  General 
James  B.  Weaver,  of  Iowa,  and  B.  J.  Cambers,  of  Mississippi.  After  a 
close  and  exciting  campaign,  in  which  much  personal  abuse  of  candidates 
prevailed,  Garfield  and  Arthur  were  elected,  receiving  214  electoral 
votes,  against  155  cast  for  Hancock  and  English. 


CHAPTER  XLI. 


War    between    Russia    and    Turkey  —  Plevna — Shipka    Pass  —  Treaty    of 
Stefano  —  Treaty  of  Berlin  —  Results   of    the   War  —  Second   Afghan 
War — Conquest  of  Burmah — Australia — Development  of  the  Col- 
onies—  New  Zealand  —  Canada  —  Irish   Agitation — Crime   in 
Ireland  —  "  Boycotting  "  — Montenegro — Nihilism — Zulu 
and  TransvazJ  Wars — Pope   and   King. 


AT  the  outbreak  of  her  war  with  Turkey,  in  April,  1867,  Russia 
concluded  a  treaty  with  Roumania,  and  the  latter  country  soon 
after  proclaimed  its  long-coveted  independence  of  the  Sublime 
Porte.  Servia  and  Montenegro  also  embraced  the  opportunity 
of  repudiating  the  last  vestiges  of  Turkish  authority.  The  early  engage- 
ments of  the  war  were  chiefly  favorable  to  the  Turks.  The  first  bettle, 
near  Batoum,  a  place  on  the  south-east  coast  of  the  Black  Sea,  resulted 
in  the  defeat  of  the  Russians  with  a  heavy  loss.  Other  engagements 
followed,  in  which  the  Turks  more  than  held  their  own,  against  the  far 
superior  numbers  and  better  equipment  of  the  Russians.  It  was  seen, 
indeed,  that  the  Turks  were  still  a  nation  of  warriors,  worthy  descendants 
of  the  conquering  tribes  of  former  centuries. 

PLEVNA. 

The  crowning  Turkish  achievement  of  the  war,  however,  was  the 
defence  of  Plevna,  a  place  commanding  the  passage  of  the  Balkans. 
This  place  was  of  much  natural  strength,  and  was  heroically  defended 
by  Osman  Pasha,  the  greatest  of  Turkish  generals,  against  an  over- 
whelming force  of  Russians  led  by  the  Czar  himself  The  first  Russian 
attack  was  repulsed  with  dreadful  slaughter,  and  the  Russian  army  was 
almost  destroyed.  The  Czar  narrowly  escaped  capture.  The  Russians 
were  saved  from  total  ruin  only  by  the  opportune  arrival  of  a  detach- 
ment of  their  Roumanian  allies,  whom  they  had  before  that  scorned  as 
mere  amateur  soldiers. 

A  second  attack  upon  Plevna  was  made  two  months  later,  on  Sep- 
tember   iith,  but  with   no  better  result  for  the   Russians  than   the  first. 

526 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  (537 

Then  the  Russians,  despairing  of  beating  the  Turks  at  fighting,  decided 
to  invest  and  starve  the  garrison  to  surrender,  and  Osman  Pasha,  though 
isolated  from  all  help,  held  his  post  with  unflinching  resolution,  till,  on 
December  iith,  he  resolved  to  force  his  way  through  the  Russian  in- 
trenchments.  But  he  was  wounded  and  driven  back,  and  compelled  to 
surrender,  with  10,000  prisoners  and  400  guns.  This  disastrous  event 
was  still  more  ruinous  to  the  Turkish  cause,  as  in  the  previous  month 
the  Russians  had  taken  Kars  by  assault,  inflicting  on  the  Turks  the  loss 
of  12,000  men  killed  and  wounded,  and  300  guns  (November  13th). 
Meanwhile  the  Russian  advanced  force  crossed  the  Balkans,  defeated 
the  Turks,  and  took  Sofia  (December  31,  1877). 

SHIPKA  PASS. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  new  year  the  Porte  resolved  to  sue  for  an 
armistice,  while  the  Russians  crossed  the  Balkans  in  full  force  and  cap- 
tured the  Turkish  army  which  had  obstinately  clung  for  months  to  the 
Shipka  Pass  (January  8-10,  1878).  Just  as  the  Sultan's  envoys  set  out 
for  the  Russian  camp  their  last  army  in  Roumelia  was  defeated  (January 
16-17),  and  its  remains  were  transported  by  sea  for  the  defence  of  Con- 
stantinople, while  Adrianople  was  yielded  up  without  a  blow  (January 
19-20).  The  time  had  now  come  when  the  interests  of  Great  Britain, 
on  the  integrity  of  which  she  had  from  the  first  announced  her  neutrality 
to  be  conditional,  were  plainly  threatened.  Parliament  met  on  January 
17,  having  been  summoned  before  the  usual  time  in  the  prospect  (said 
the  Queen's  speech)  that,  "should  hostilities  be  prolonged,  some  un- 
expected occurrence  may  render  incumbent  on  me  to  adopt  measures 
of  precaution."  But  on  those  measures  the  Cabinet  itself  was  divided, 
and  Lord  Carnarvon  resigned  (January  24th).  When,  however,  the  news 
arrived  that  the  Russians  were  threatening  Gallipoli  and  the  Dardanelles, 
and  had  advanced  within  thirty  miles  of  Constantinople,  the  Liberals 
withdrew  their  opposition  to  the  vote  of  /^6 ,000,000  demanded  by  Gov- 
ernment, and  the  British  fleet  was  ordered  to  enter  the  Sea  of  Marmora 
(February  8th). 

TREATY  OF  SAN  STEFANO. 

On  the  same  day  the  severe  terms  exacted  by  Russia  for  an  armis- 
tice became  known,  and  the  Turks  yielded  up  the  outer  lines  around 
Constantinople.     On    the    24th   the   Archduke   Nicolas  fixed    his  head- 


52S  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

quarters  close  to  that  city,  at  San  Stefano,  on  the  Sea  of  Marmora ;  and 
here  a  preliminary  treaty  was  signed,  wliich  would  have  destroyed  the 
Sultan's  power,  and  placed  what  was  left  of  him  at  the  mercy  of  Russia 
(March  3d).  The  terms,  which  were  afterwards  confirmed,  will  be  stated 
presently  ;  but  the  main  essence  was  contained  in  the  creation  of  a  great 
tributary,  but  self-governing,  principality  of  Bulgaria,  south  as  well  as 
north  of  the  Balkans,  stretchinof  across  from  the  Black  Sea  to  the 
.^gean,  and  leaving  the  Sultan  only  a  narrow  territory  about  Constan- 
tinople, the  Sea  of  Marmora  and  the  Straits.  Russia  did  not  deny  that 
this  reversal  of  the  settlement  of  1856  required  some  sanction  from  the 
European  powers,  but  she  held  out  against  the  firm  demand  of  Great 
Britain,  that  the  treaty  of  San  Stefano  should  be  laid  as  a  whole  before 
the  proposed  congress.  At  this  crisis  Lord  Derby  resigned  (March 
28th)  rather  than  concur  in  the  calling  out  of  the  army  reserves,  and 
the  bringing  a  force  of  7000  Indian  troops  to  be  in  readiness  at  Malta. 
The  first  act  of  Lord  Salisbury,  on  succeeding  to  the  seals  of  the  Foreign 
Office,  was  to  issue  a  circular  despatch,  which  at  once  made  England's 
attitude  clear.  While  acutely  scanning  the  several  items  of  the  treaty, 
he  insisted  chiefly  that  it  would  establish  the  complete  supremacy  of 
Russia  over  Turkey,  not  so  much  by  any  single  article  as  by  "the  opera- 
tion of  the  instrument  as  a  whole." 

TREATY  or   BERLIN. 

Never  did  a  state  paper  produce  a  more  powerful  effect.  The 
vacillating  policy  of  Austria  was  fixed  to  support  England  ;  and  Prince 
Bismarck,  eager  to  avert  the  European  war  which  is  now  known  to  have 
been  imminent,  used  all  his  influence  to  persuade  Russia  to  give  way. 
The  Russian  ambassador,  Count  Schouvalov,  labored  earnestly  in  con- 
junction with  our  Government  for  peace,  and  their  secret  negotiations 
resulted  in  a  written  agreement  (May  30th)  as  to  the  chief  points  that 
should  be  yielded  or  insisted  on  at  the  congress  which  Prince  Bismarck 
invited  to  meet  at  Berlin  on  June  13th.  England  was  represented  by 
Lords  Beaconsfield  and  Salisbury,  by  whose  ability  and  the  proof  of 
earnestness  given  by  the  presence  of  the  prime-minister  (a  very  unusual 
step  on  such  occasions),  as  well  as  by  Prince  Bismarck's  resolution,  the 
congress  was  brought  to  a  successful  issue,  and  the  Treaty  of  Berlin 
was  signed  (July  13,  1878). 


1896— CZAR  NICHOLAS  II.  CROWNS  HIMSELF  IN  THE  KREMLIN  OK  MOSCOW 


1897— QUEEN  VICTORIA'S  DIAiMUXD  JUBILEE 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  53 1 

RESULTS  OF  THE  WAR. 

Roumania,  Servia  and  Montenegro  gained  their  independence  ;  the 
two  latter  States  with  enlarged  frontiers  ;  while  Roumania  had  to  give 
back  to  her  too  powerful  ally  the  part  of  Bessarabia  adjoining  the 
Danube,  receiving  the  marshes  of  the  Dobruja  at  the  expense  of  Bul- 
garia. The  free  navigation  of  the  Danube  was  confirmed,  and  the  fort- 
resses on  its  banks  were  to  be  razed.  Bosnia  and  the  Herzegovina, 
which  had  led  the  insurrection  against  Turkey,  were  handed  over  to 
Austrian  occupation.  The  huge  Bulgaria,  devised  by  General  Ignatiev 
at  San  Stefano,  was  divided  ;  the  old  province  of  that  name,  between 
the  Danube  and  the  Balkans,  being  erected  into  a  tributary  but  self- 
governing  principality  under  a  prince  to  be  elected  by  the  people  and 
approved  by  the  Sultan  and  the  powers  ;  while  the  new  province  of 
Eastern  Roumelia  (south  of  the  Balkans)  was  left  to  the  Sultan,  but 
with  administrative  self-government  and  other  securities  against  oppres- 
sion. The  Sultan  was  advised  to  grant  Greece  an  extension  of  territory. 
In  Asia  Russia  gained  more  of  Armenia,  with  the  long-coveted  port  of 
Batoum  ;  but,  as  a  security  against  any  future  conquests  on  her  part, 
the  British  government  had  already  signed  a  convention  with  the  Porte 
for  the  defence  of  the  Turkish  possessions  in  Asia,  for  which  purpose 
Turkey  gave  Cyprus  to  be  occupied  by  Great  Britain.  The  British 
envoys  were  welcomed  home  on  their  return  to  England,  as  bringing, 
in  Lord  Beaconsfield's  own  words,  "peace  with  honor." 

SECOND  AFGHAN  WAR. 

The  second  Afghan  war  (1878-80)  was  a  direct  consequence  of  the 

political    conflict   of  England   and    Russia   at  Constantinople  after   the 

Turkish  war  of    1S77-78.     While  hostilities   between   the  two   powers 

seemed   probable,  a   Russian   Embassy  went  to  Cabul  and  enlisted   the 

Ameer  Shere  AH  as  a  confederate  of  the  Czar.     Lord  Lytton,  the  British 

Viceroy  of  India,  resolved  to  stop  this  new  development,  declared  war 

on  the  Afghan   ruler,  and  sent  three  expeditions  across  the  frontier  into 

the  Ameer's  dominions.      Candahar  havino-  fallen,  and   Sir   Frederick 

Roberts  having  stormed  the  Peiwar-Kotal   pass  and  advanced  close  to 

Cabul,  the  Ameer  fled  towards  Russian   territory,  and  died  soon  after. 

His   son  and   successor,  Yakub  Khan,  at  once  asked  for  peace,  gave 

guarantees,  and  received  a  British  Envoy  as  a  permanent  resident  in  his 
28 


532  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

capital.  But  this  weak  Prince  was  totally  unable  to  control  his  wild 
subjects,  who  rose  in  arms,  murdered  the  Envoy,  Sir  Louis  Cavagnari, 
and  all  his  escorts,  and  proclaimed  the  "holy  war"  (Jehad)  against  the 
British  infidels.  Lord  Lytton  was  obliged  to  launch  his  armies  for  a 
second  time  against  Afghanistan.  Roberts  acrain  marched  on  Cabul,  and 
occupied  it  after  the  battle  of  Charasia,  but  was  soon  beset  by  a  vast 
horde  of  insurgents,  who  beleaguered  him  in  his  camp.  He  drove  them 
off,  however,  and  was  completely  triumphant  long  before  reinforcements 
reached  him  from  India. 

But  matters  went  worse  in  the  south,  where  the  pretender  Ayoub 
Khan  defeated  at  Maiwand  the  garrison  of  Candahar  and  formed  the 
siege  of  that  city.  A  bold  resolution  was  taken  at  Cabul.  Sir  Frederick 
Roberts,  gathering  a  force  of  over  9000  men,  marched  to  the  relief  (  f 
Candahar,  allowing  Abdurrahman,  with  whom  all  arrangements  had  bet  n 
previously  concluded,  to  occupy  Cabul,  and  leaving  to  General  Stewart 
the  duty  of  leading  back  the  rest  of  the  British  troops  by  the  Khyber  to 
the  Punjab.  Roberts,  cut  off  from  direct  communication  with  his  country- 
men, disappeared,  as  it  were,  from  human  ken  for  three  weeks,  during 
which  the  national  anxiety  was  e.xtreme.  It  was  doubted  whether 
Candahar  could  hold  out  until  relieved,  and  yet  relief  from  no  other 
quarter  could  be  hoped  for  in  time.  At  length  Roberts  emerged  vic- 
torious from  the  trackless  region  between  Cabul  and  Candahar  without 
the  loss  of  a  man.  Falling  on  the  besiegers  he  scattered  them  at  the 
battle  of  Candahar  (September  i,  1880),  and  practically  finished  the  war 
at  a  single  blow.  Lord  Lytton  would  have  liked  to  annex  much  of  the 
conquered  territory,  but  Mr.  Gladstone  was  now  in  power  at  home,  and 
the  warlike  Viceroy  was  recalled.  The  Liberal  Government  withdrew 
the  British  troops,  after  recognizing  as  Ameer  Abdur  Rahman,  a  nephew 
of  the  late  ruler,  Shere  Ali.  He  has,  on  the  whole,  proved  a  good 
neighbor  to  India,  and  kept  faithfully  the  pledges  which  he  made  in  1880. 

CONQUEST  OF  BURMAH. 

The  next  important  movement  in  the  Indian  Empire  was  on  the  flank 
furthest  from  Afghanistan.  The  Kings  of  Burmah  had  always  been 
vexatious  neighbors,  and  in  1885  the  British  were  drawn  into  war  with 
Theebaw,  a  despot  who  had  massacred  all  his  relatives  and  entered  into 
intrigues  with  France.     His  worthless  army  was  scattered  with  ease,  and 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  533 

his  whole  dominion  annexed  ;  but  the  suppression  of  the  brigandage 
{dacoity),  which  had  always  prevailed  in  Burmah,  proved  a  much  harder 
business  than  the  dethronement  of  the  King,  and  was  not  finished  for 
several  years,  during  which  many  scores  of  expeditions  had  to  be  sent 
out  against  the  bandits. 

AUSTRALIA. 

Australia  was  in  1 800  very  imperfecdy  known,  though  an  English 
convici  settlement  had  been  planted  at  Port  Jackson  some  twelve  years 
before.  But  even  down  to  1802  its  shape  was  so  little  known  that  the 
great  island  of  Tasmania  was  supposed  to  form  a  part  of  it.  As  long  as 
the  region  was  nothing  more  than  a  place  of  punishment  for  those  "who 
left  their  country  for  their  country's  good,"  it  was  not  likely  to  develop 
fast  or  happily.  But,  after  the  peace  of  Vienna,  the  capacities  of  the  vast 
plains  of  Eastern  Australia  began  to  be  known  ;  no  region  so  well  suited 
for  pastoral  enterprises  on  the  largest  scale  exists  in  all  the  world.  Free 
settlers,  provided  with  some  litde  capital,  began  to  drift  in  and  to  plant 
their  stations  on  the  broad  grassy  upland  of  New  South  Wales,  where 
sheep  and  cattle  soon  began  to  multiply  at  an  astounding  race.  But  for 
a  whole  generation  the  unsavory  convict  element  continued  to  predomi- 
nate, and  to  give  the  continent  a  bad  name.  Fortunately  the  ameliora- 
tion of  the  English  criminal  law,  between  1820  and  1S40,  began  to 
diminish  the  depth  of  the  stream  of  ruffianism  which  was  poured  into 
Australia  year  by  year,  while  the  free  colonists  grew  more  numerous  as 
the  opening  for  the  sheep  farmer  began  to  be  realized.  The  feeling 
among  them  as  to  the  further  importation  of  convicts  grew  so  strong  that 
the  British  Government  diverted  the  main  stream  from  New  South  Wales 
(1840)  to  newer  penal  setdements  in  Tasmania  and  Western  Australia. 
The  system  was  not,  however,  finally  abandoned  in  Tasmania  till  1853, 
and  in  Western  Australia  till  1864,  though  in  the  last  years  of  its 
existence  the  annual  export  of  convicts  had  been  very  small. 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  COLONIES. 

Down  to  the  middle  of  the  century  it  seemed  likely  that  Australia 
would  never  develop  into  anything  more  than  a  thinly  populated  pastoral 
country,  occupied  by  a  community  of  "squatters,"  each  owning  a  vast 
run  of  many  thousand  acres,  and  employing  a  few  shepherds  and  cattle- 
men  to   tend  his  live   stock.     Wool,  tallow  and    hides,  with  a  certain 


534  STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

amount  of  timber,  were  practically  the  sole  exports  of  the  continent. 
But  all  was  changed  in  1848-51  by  the  discovery  in  Port  Phillip,  the 
southern  region  of  New  South  Wales,  ot  enormous  deposits  of  alluvial 
gold,  richer  than  anything  known  in  the  old  world,  and  vieing  in  wealth 
with  those  of  California.  There  was,  of  course,  an  instant  rush  to  the 
new  gold  field,  and  the  population  of  the  Port  Phillip  district  went  up  so 
rapidly  that  it  was  cut  off  from  the  parent  colony  and  formed  into  a  sepa- 
rate community  under  the  name  of  Victoria,  in  185 1.  It  has  ever  since 
remained  one  of  the  chief  gold-producing  centres  of  the  world,  and  more 
than  ^250,000,000  worth  of  the  precious  metal  has  been  extracted  from 
its  mines.  More  than  ^4,000,000  worth  a  year  is  still  exported,  though 
the  easy  surface  deposits  have  long  been  exhausted,  and  all  the  material 
has  to  be  crushed  by  machinery  from  the  solid  quartz  reef  Some  time 
after  the  Victorian  gold  field  was  developed  similar  fields  of  smaller 
extent  and  lesser  richness  were  found  to  exist  in  other  parts  of  the  conti- 
nent. New  South  Wales  and  the  younger  colony  of  Queensland  (created 
in  1859)  have  both  an  important  output,  and  quite  lately  similar  deposits 
have  been  discovered  in  Western  Australia. 

NEW  ZEALAND. 

To  the  east  of  Australia  lies  the  colony  of  New  Zealand,  consisting 
of  two  large  and  one  small  island  placed  far  out  in  the  Pacific,  some 
twelve  hundred  mites  from  the  nearest  point  of  New  South  Wales. 
Colonization  here  only  began  in  the  reign  of  Victoria,  the  first  emigrants 
arriving  in  1 839.  The  history  of  New  Zealand  has  been  very  different 
from  that  of  the  Australian  Continent,  owing  to  the  existence  of  a  large 
and  energetic  native  population.  The  aborigines  of  Australia,  a  few 
thousand  scattered  over  a  vast  continent,  were  amonof  the  lowest  and 
most  barbarous  of  mankind.  The  Maori  tribes  of  New  Zealand,  on  the 
other  hand,  were  a  fierce  and  intelligent  race,  given  to  the  horrid  practice 
of  cannibalism,  but  in  other  respects  by  no  means  an  unpromising  people. 
They  were  ready  and  able  to  defend  themselves  when  they  considered 
their  rights  had  been  infringed,  and  since  the  first  settlement  there  have 
been  three  wars  (1843-47,  1863-64,  1869-70),  in  which  the  Maoris  dis- 
played great  courage,  and  considerable  skill  in  fortification.  Regular 
troops  in  large  force  had  to  be  employed  to  evict  them  from  their  stock 
aded  "Pahs."     Of  late  years  a  better  modus  vivendi  has  been  found,  and 


OD 

00 

I 

tr 


r 


"Z 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  537 

they  seem  contented  with  their  large  reserv^ations  of  land,  their  subsidies 
from  Government,  and  the  four  seats  which  have  been  griven  them  in  the 
New  Zealand  Parliament. 

The  islands  were,  at  their  first  colonization,  organized  as  six  prov- 
inces, each  with  a  separate  government,  and  were  not  united  into  a 
thoroughly  centralized  union  till  1875.  Their  general  character  differs 
from  that  of  Australia,  as  they  are  far  more  broken  up  by  mountains, 
better  watered,  and  much  more  temperate  in  climate.  In  the  southern 
island  snow  not  unfrequently  falls.  There  are  large  pastoral  districts 
and  grassy  plains,  which  supply  the  frozen  meat  now  so  common  in 
Enoflish  markets,  but  also  considerable  minincf  regions  and  laree  forest 
tracts.  New  Zealand  was  never  dominated  by  the  "  squatter  "  aristoc- 
racy which  once  ruled  Australia,  but  had  always  been  in  the  hands  of  the 
smaller  farmers.  It  is  in  sentiment  the  most  democratic  of  all  the  Aus- 
tralian colonies,  and  has  gone  further  even  than  X'ictorla  on  the  road  to- 
wards placing  all  social  enterprise.  Industry  and  commerce  under  State 
control. 

CANADA. 

The  progress  of  British  North  America  was  greatly  assisted  by  the 
federation  of  the  colonies,  carried  out  between  1867  and  1873.  The  two 
Canadas,  New  Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia  formed  themselves  Into  the 
new  Dominion  of  Canada  in  the  first-named  year  ;  the  North-western 
Territory,  once  the  property  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  joined  them 
in  1870,  British  Columbia  Ih  1871,  and  Prince  Edward  Island  In  1873. 
The  remote  fishing  colony  of  Newfoundland  has  preferred  not  to  cast  in 
its  lot  with  the  rest,  thoutdi  in  its  dealinofs  with  its  aearresslve  French 
neighbors  It  would  be  greatly  helped  by  being  able  to  speak  with  the 
same  voice  as  its  greater  sisters.  The  Dominion  is  now  a  federal  eov- 
ernment,  with  a  Governor-General,  a  Senate  appointed  for  life,  and  a 
House  of  Representatives.  The  individual  provinces  still  retain  for 
local  purposes  their  provincial  assemblies,  and  enjoy  complete  home  rule 
under  the  central  government. 

Since  the  federation,  the  most  important  landmark  in  the  hlstor)*  of 
the  colonies  is  undoubtedly  the  building  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway 
between  1881  and  1885.  Since  it  was  finished  the  development  of  Man- 
itoba and  the  other  regions  of  the  "  Great  Lone  Land  "  has  been  very 
rapid.     Nine  new  provinces  now  exist  in   this   once  uninhabited  region, 


538  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEAKt 

with  a  rapidly  growing  population  of  over  300,000  souls.  They  are 
mainly  devoted  to  ranching  antl  corn-growing,  unlike  the  districts  fur- 
ther east,  where  the  lumber  trade  is  the  great  industry.  The  Canadian 
Pacific  has  an  imperial  as  well  as  a  colonial  importance,  since  it  provides 
a  quick  route  to  the  extreme  East,  passing  entirely  through  British  terri- 
tory. About  1 100  miles  is  saved  in  passing  from  Liverpool  to 
lapan  or  Northern  China,  if  the  route  by  Halifax,  Montreal  and  Vancou- 
ver is  taken  rather  than  that  by  the  Suez  Canal  and  Singapore. 

IRISH   AGITATION. 

At  the  opening  of  the  year  1880  the  condition  of  Ireland  was 
causing  much  anxiety,  and  that  anxiety,  through  many  changes  of 
form,  constantly  increased.  Fear  was  everywhere  felt  of  an  impend- 
ing famine,  and  the  Conservative  Ministry  were  violently  assailed 
for  not  taking  adequate  measures  to  avert  loss  of  life.  It  proved,  how- 
ever, that  even  in  the  most  greviously  afflicted  districts  the  provision 
made  by  public  assistance  or  private  alms  for  the  relief  of  distress  was 
ample,  nor  has  the  malignity  of  anti-English  agitators  been  able  to  point 
to  the  spectacle  of  a  starving  community. 

But,  while  the  alarm  of  famine  and  the  lavish  expenditure  upon  re- 
lief combined  to  demoralize  the  Irish  people,  the  followers  of  Mr.  Parnell 
steadily  labored  to  raise  a  popular  cry  against  the  payment  of  rent.  At 
the  outset  the  distress  was  made  the  pretext  of  a  refusal  to  fulfill  con- 
tracts relating  to  land,  but  Mr.  Parnell  very  soon  advanced  to  a  more 
commanding  position.  He  advised  the  peasantry  to  "hold  the  land,"  and 
to  pay  only  so  much  rent  as  they  deemed  fair,  and  he  allowed  it  to  be 
plainly  seen  that  his  ultimate  object  was  the  separation  of  Ireland  from 
Great  Britain.  Early  in  the  year  Mr.  Parnell  visited  the  United  States 
with  the  object  of  raising  a  fund,  partly  for  the  relief  of  distress,  and 
partly  for  the  promotion  of  his  political  objects  at  home.  His  success 
was  not  conspicuous,  but  his  influence  as  the  rallying- point  of  disaffected 
feeling  in  Ireland  was  increased,  and  at  the  general  election  more  than 
half  of  the  Home  Rule  candidates  had  to  pledge  themselves  to  follow 
him  blindly. 

CRIME  IN    IRELAND. 

After  Parliament  was  prorogued  the  language  of  Mr.  Parnell  and 
his  lieut-°nants  grew  more  f.?rce,  and  agrarian  ';rime  increased  with  fright- 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  539 

ful  rapidity.  The  Land  League  proceeded  to  enact  that  tenants  should 
nowhere  pay  more  than  Griffith's  valuation,  which  was  at  least  25 
per  cent,  under  the  letting  value  of  ordinary  land  when  the  basis  of 
rating  was  fixed  according  to  the  low  standard  of  agricultural  prices 
ruling  a  generation  ago.  Attempts  to  resist  this  decision,  either  on  the 
part  of  landlords  demanding  their  due,  or  of  tenants  willing  to  pay,  were 
punished  by  atrocious  outrages,  including  murder,  maiming,  destruction 
of  cattle  and  crops,  and  torture  inflicted  on  men  and  animals. 

••  BOYCOTTING." 

But  even  these  disclosures  had  less  effect  in  arousing  public  opin- 
ion in  England  than  the  extraordinary  system  of  intimidation  put  in 
force  against  Captain  Boycott,  Lord  Erne's  agent  near  Lough  Mask, 
on  the  borders  of  Galway  and  Mayo.  Captain  Boycott  had  incurred  the 
enmity  of  the  Land  League  by  attempting  to  enforce  the  payment  of 
rent,  and  sentence  of  social  e.xcommunication  was  passed  upon  him 
His  servants  and  laborers  were  ordered  to  leave  him,  shopkeepers  were 
forbidden  to  deal  with  him,  his  cattle  and  crops  were  doomed  to  perish  of 
neglect.  The  victim  could  have  obtained  assistance  from  England  or 
from  Ulster,  but  that  it  was  well  known  that  the  lives  of  the  new-comers 
would  have  been  in  extreme  danger.  Police  protection  was  utterly 
powerless,  and  intimidation  would  have  carried  its  point  without  check 
had  not  the  spirit  of  the  Ulster  men  been  stirred  up,  and  an  expedi- 
tion for  the  "relief"  of  Lough  Mask  House  been  organized  amongr  the 
tenant  farmers  of  Cavan  and  Monaghan.  The  Government  became 
seriously  alarmed  at  the  prospect  of  a  collision  between  the  relief  party 
and  the  peasantry.  An  army  of  nearly  1000  men,  with  cavalry,  infin- 
try  and  artillery  all  complete,  was  despatched  to  the  scene  of  action, 
and  the  "invaders,"  as  the  Land  League  styled  them,  were  allowed  to 
gather  in  part  of  Captain  Boycott's  crops. 

But  when  the  work  was  done  Captain  Boycott's  position  was  little 
better  than  before.  He  had  to  leave  the  farm  in  which  he  had  sunk  all 
his  capital,  and  which  was  surrendered  to  the  pranks  of  malignity  and 
rapine.  The  impossibility  of  keeping  intimidation  at  bay  by  the  use  of 
troops  to  protect  individuals  was  strikingly  demonstrated.  "  Boycotting" 
became  general,  and  although  resting  upon  criminal  threats  or  outrages, 
it  has  been  carried  on  without  effectual  resistance  on  the  part  of  the  law. 


54°  STORY   OF   ONE   HUNDRED  YEARS. 

MONTENEGRO. 

In  1880  the  Porte  had  not  given  effect  to  any  of  the  numerous  compro 
mises  suggested  for  solving  the  Montenegrin  frontier  difficulty,  on  the  pre 
tence  that  opposition  of  the  Albanians  made  it  impossible  to  execute  th< 
transfer  of  territory  acknowledged  in  principle  to  be  a  part  of  the  settle 
ment  imposed  by  the  treaty  ;  and  had  all  along  refused  to  accept  as  binding; 
the  recommendation  of  the  protocol  adopted  at  Berlin,  that  a  large  part 
of  Thessaly  and  Epirus  should  be  ceded  to  Greece.    Both  questions  were 
taken  in  hand  by  the  Powers  after  the  change  of  ministry  in  England. 

Ultimately  the  powers  decided  upon  insisting  that  the  town  and  dis- 
trict of  Dulcigno  should  be  peacefully  surrendered  to  Montenegro  by  a 
fixed  date.  In  the  event  of  a  non-compliance  a  naval  demonstration, 
representing  all  the  Powers,  was  to  take  place.  Turkey  still  held  back, 
and  a  conjoint  squadron  under  the  British  admiral,  Sir  Beauchamp  Sey- 
mour, assembled  at  Ragusa.  The  immediate  effect  was  not  pacific. 
Kadri  Pasha's  ministry  fell,  and  Said  returned  to  power.  For  awhile  it 
appeared  that  a  conflict  could  not  be  avoided.  The  Sultan  addressed  a 
letter  to  the  European  ambassadors  declaring  that  until  the  naval  demon- 
stration was  withdrawn  he  could  not  entertain  the  question  of  surren- 
dering Dulcigno.  On  the  other  hand,  though  the  allied  squadron  had 
taken  up  a  menacing  position  close  to  the  scene  of  the  cession  demanded, 
the  admirals  were  not  empowered  to  accede  to  the  demand  of  Montene- 
gro for  active  aid  and  a  guarantee  of  indemnity.  The  Porte,  perceiving 
the  hesitation  of  the  Powers,  published  a  note  on  October  4,  1880,  which 
was  generally  regarded  as  a  defiance  of  Europe. 

The  issue  between  the  policies  of  conflicting  coercion  and  suasion 
could  no  longer  be  avoided  by  the  European  cabinets.  It  has  since  be- 
come known  that  the  policy  of  coercion  could  not  have  been  insisted 
upon  without  entailing  the  rupture  of  the  European  concert.  The  British 
Government  proposed  that  the  fleet  should  be  dispatched  to  Smyrna 
with  a  view  to  putting  pressure  upon  the  Sultan  by  the  sequestration  of 
the  customs  revenues.  Russia  and  Italy  were  willing  to  join  in  this  pro- 
ject, but  Austria  and  Germany  were  disinclined  to  accept  any  share  of 
responsibility.  The  scale  was  turned  by  France,  where  a  singular  retro- 
gressive movement  of  public  opinion  had  taken  place,  and  where  even 
the  influence  of  M.  Gambetta  in  favor  of  an  active  policy  in  the  East  had 
been  overpowered. 


STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED   YEARS.  541 

The  proposal  with  respect  to  Smyrna  was,  therefore,  stillborn.  But 
the  menace,  though  never  adopted  by  the  Powers,  sufficed  to  bring  the 
Porte  to  a  sudden  submission,  and  four  days  after  the  issue  of  the  defiant 
note  it  was  announced  that  Dulcigno  would  be  surrendered  uncondition- 
ally, the  Sultan,  however,  expressing  a  hope  that  in  consequence  the 
naval  demonstration  would  be  withdrawn.  When  it  leaked  out  by  and 
by  that  the  Powers  were  not  in  accord,  and  would  not  have  proceeded 
to  measures  of  coercion,  the  zeal  for  concession  cooled  at  Constanti- 
nople, and  for  several  weeks  the  allied  fleet  paraded  the  Adriatic,  while 
the  Turks  were  raising  new  difficulties  about  the  details  of  the  surrender 
and  conjuring  up  the  spectre  of  an  Albanian  rising.  At  last  the  matter 
was  put  into  the  hands  of  a  resolute  man.  Dervish  Pasha,  who  showed 
the  Albanians  that  he  could  and  would  fight.  He  occupied  Dulcigno 
without  serious  resistance  and  handed  it  over  to  the  Montenegrins. 

NIHILISM. 

Russia  was  perturbed  by  the  mysterious  movements  of  nihilism.  A 
desperate  attempt  to  blow  up  the  Winter  Palace  at  St.  Petersburg  nar- 
rowly missed  its  object  in  February,  1880,  the  Czar's  life  being  saved  by 
a  combination  of  accidents.  This  outrage  led  to  the  suspension  of  pub- 
lic liberty  and  the  transfer  of  dictatorial  power  to  General  Melikoff 
The  death  of  the  Empress  supplied  an  additional  motive  for  the  Czar's 
retirement  from  active  life,  by  allowing  him  to  enter  into  a  morganatic 
marriage  with  the  Princess  Dolgorouky. 

ZULU   AND   TRANSVAAL   WARS. 

The  Transvaal  Republic  in  South  Africa  in  1876  became  involved  in 
a  disastrous  war  with  the  Kaffirs,  and  was  threatened  with  extermination. 
Appeal  was  made  to  Great  Britain  for  aid,  which  was  granted,  and  the 
Kaffirs  were  pacified  and  the  Transvaal  saved.  The  deplorable  state 
into  which  the  Transvaal  had  fallen  through  misgovernment  led  its  chief 
men,  however,  to  ask  for  annexation  to  Great  Britain,  and  this  was 
effected  in   1877. 

This  led  to  trouble  with  the  Zulus,  with  whom  the  Transvaal 
Boers  had  been  at  war,  and  a  war  between  Great  Britain  and  the  Zulu 
nation  ensued  in  1879.  On  January  2 2d  the  British  met  with  disaster 
at  Isandula,  but  won  a  victory  at  Ginglovo   on  April   2d,  and  another  on 


542  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

April  3d  at  Ekowe.  Louis  Napoleon,  the  Prince  Imperial  of  France, 
who  went  out  to  serve  in  the  British  army,  was  killed  by  the  Zulus  in 
a  skirmish  on  June  ist.  On  July  4th  the  Zulus  were  crushed  at  Ulundi, 
and  their  King,  Cetywayo,  was  captured  on  August  28th.  Since  that 
time  Zululand  has  been  a  part  of  the  British  Empire. 

The  Boers  were,  however,  dissatisfied  with  British  rule,  and  on 
November  i,  1880,  they  revolted  to  regain  their  independence.  On  Feb- 
ruary 27th  a  small  detachment  of  British  troops  was  overwhelmed  and 
nearly  annihilated  by  the  Boers  at  Majuba  Hill,  and  a  month  later  Great 
Britain  granted  autonomy  to  the  Transvaal  and  withdrew  her  forces. 

POPE  AND   KING. 

Victor  Emanuel,  King  of  Italy,  died  on  January  9,  1878,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Humbert.  On  February  7di  the  Pope,  Pius  IX,  died, 
and  on  February  20th  was  succeeded  by  Leo  XII. 

An  attempt  was  made  by  Hoedel  to  murder  the  German  Emperor 
on  May  4,  1878,  and  on  June  2d  following  Nobiling  succeeded  in 
woundinsr  the  venerable  monarch.  These  men  beintr  Socialists,  the 
German  Parliament  in  October  of  that  year  passed  a  stringent  anti- 
Socialist  law. 

The  Ten  Years  War  in  Cuba  came  to  a  close  in  1878  on  Spain's 
promise  of  reforms,  which,  however,  were  never  granted. 

The  year  1879  began  with  much  political  agitation  in  France,  which 
culminated  on  January  30th  in  the  resignation  of  President  MacMahon. 
Jules  Grevy  was  chosen  to  succeed  him,  and  Gambetta  became  President 
of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies. 

On  April  28,  1S79,  Prince  Ale.xander  of  Battenburg  was  elected 
Prince  of  Bulgaria. 

In  the  same  year  Ismail,  Khedive  of  Egypt,  was  deposed  by  the 
Porte,  and  his  son  Tewfik  was  proclaimed  his  successor.  A  \var  broke 
out  in  that  year  between  Peru  and  Bolivia  on  the  one  side,  and  Chili  on 
the  other.  It  lasted  until  the  middle  of  the  ne.xt  year,  and  ended  in  the 
triumph  of  the  Chilians,  who  annexed  a  province  of  Peru. 

The  year  1880  was  made  memorable  in  Europe  by  the  campaign  of 
the  French  Government,  led  by  Jules  Ferry,  against  the  Jesuits  and  other 
Roman  Catholic  organizations,  by  the  granting  of  amnesty  to  the  exiled 
Communists,  and  by  the  outrageous  perMCCution  of  the  Jews  in  Germany, 


CHAPTER  XLII. 


Stanley's   Great   Explorations  in   Africa — Vindication  of  Stanley — St&.n- 

ley's  Third  Expedition — Paris  Exposition — Arctic  Exploration — 

Cologne  Cathedral — Modern  Inventions — Necrology. 


THE  opening  of  the  African  Continent  to  civilization,  to  which 
Livingstone  had  contributed  so  much,  proceeded  unchecked  after 
that  great  explorer's  death.  His  work  was  taken  up  by  the  man 
who  had  gone  to  his  relief  and  who,  in  that  remarkable  journey, 
had  become  infected  with  the  irresistible  fascination  which  Airica  seems 
to  have  for  all  who  seek  to  penetrate  her  wildernesses. 

On  his  second  voyage  Mr.  Stanley  arrived  at  Zanzibar  in  the  fall  of 
1874,  from  which  point  he  started  inland,  looking  for  Lake  Victoria 
Nyanza,  with  a  force  of  300  men.  The  journey  overland  was  one  of 
great  hardships  and  many  contests  with  the  natives.  He  reached  the 
lake  on  February  27,  1875,  having  in  the  meantime  lost  194  men  by 
death  and  desertion.  With  a  boat  which  he  had  brought  with  him  in 
pieces,  he  made  a  voyage  around  the  lake  and  found  it  to  be  a  single 
large  lake,  and  not  one  of  a  series  of  lagoons,  as  was  supposed  by 
Burton  and  Livingstone.  He  found  it  to  contain  40,000  square  miles, 
and  to  be,  therefore,  the  largest  body  of  fresh  water  on  the  globe.  His 
next  move  was  westward  toward  Lake  .A.lbert  Edward  Nyanza.  Thtt 
result  of  this  exploration  was  to  prove  that  the  latter  lake  was  not  con- 
nected with  Lake  Tanganyika.  The  hostility  of  the  natives  forced  Mr. 
Stanley  to  retire  to  Ujiji,  and  at  this  point  he  determined  to  descend  the 
great  river  discovered  by  Livingstone,  and  believed  by  him  to  be  the 
Nile.  Stanley's  investigation  determined  the  fact  that  the  river  was  none 
other  than  the  Congo,  the  mouth  of  which  was  reached  by  him  August 
12,  1877.  From  this  long  period  of  exploration  he  returned  to  England 
in  February,  1878. 

VINDICATION  OF  STANLEY 

Mr.    Stanley's  own   countrymen  were  for  a  long  time   apparently 
indisposed  to  do  him  justice.     His  first  Central  African  journey  in  search 

543 


544  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

of  Livingstone  was  so  unexpectedly  successful  that  his  story  seemed 
incredible  to  many  who  were  unacquainted  with  African  exploration.  To 
every  student  of  that  fascinating  subject  the  evidences  of  the  substantial 
truth  of  Stanley's  narrative  were  to  be  found  in  every  page  of  his  book, 
but  in  one  respect  its  very  truthfulness  stimulated  the  scepticism  of  those 
who  fancied  that  a  young  newspaper  reporter  would  find  it  easier  to  say 
that  he  had  been  to  Lake  Tanganyika  than  to  go  there.  They  pointed 
out  that  Stanley  had  represented  Livingstone  as  saying  or  writing  things 
which  a  grave  Scotch  missionary  would  never  have  thought  of  and  they 
thereupon  jumped  to  the  conclusion  that  Stanley  had  never  met  the 
veteran  explorer.  Of  course  when  Livingstone's  last  journal  reached 
England  the  truth  of  Stanley's  narrative  was  confirmed  in  every  particu- 
lar, and  perhaps  he  afterward  forgave  the  temporary  incredulity  of  some 
of  his  countrymen  when  he  remembered  that  it  was  the  very  splendor  of 
his  achievement  which  made  it  seem  incredible. 

In  his  second  great  journey  Stanley  placed  himself  at  the  very  head 
of  African  explorers.  He  crossed  the  continent  of  Africa  by  descending 
the  Congo,  a  task  which  Livingstone  had  failed  to  accomplish,  and  which 
Cameron  had  decided  to  be  impracticable.  This,  of  itself,  was  the 
grandest  achievement  of  which  the  history  of  African  exploration  has  any 
record,  but  it  was  only  a  part  of  what  Stanley  accomplished.  He 
thoroughly  surveyed  the  Victoria  Lake,  and  nearly  completed  a  like 
survey  of  Tanganyika.  He  ascertained  that  the  river  Shirneeyu  is  the 
largest  affluent  of  Victoria  Lake,  and  hence  the  true  beginning  of  the 
Nile,  and  he  established  the  fact  that  the  Lualaba  and  the  Congo  are  one 
and  the  same. 

STANLEY'S  THIRD  EXPEDITION. 

His  third  visit  to  Africa  was  made  in  1879,  at  which  time  he  was 
sent  out  by  the  Brussels  African  International  Association,  with  a  view  of 
developing  the  basin  of  the  Congo  River.  The  King  of  the  Belgians 
devoted  from  his  own  pocket  ^^50,000  per  annum  toward  the  cost  of  the 
enterprise.  Stanley  completed  this  work  in  1884,  having  established 
trading  posts  all  along  the  Congo,  from  its  mouth  to  Stanley  Station,  a 
distance  of  1400  miles.  A  description  of  his  labors  in  this  field  was  pub- 
lished by  him  in  1885  under  the  title,  "The  Congo  and  the  Founding  of 
Its  Free  State." 


1900— AMERICAN  FASHIONS 


1900— UNITED  STATES  GOVERNMENT  BUILDING,  PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION 


STORY    OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS.  547 

PARIS   EXPOSITION. 

A  world's  fair  was  held  in  Paris  in  1878.  Especial  interest  was  felt 
in  it,  because  of  the  dreadful  losses  France  had  suffered  only  a  few  years 
before,  and  there  were  those  who  doubted  whether  the  nation  had 
sufficiently  recovered  from  the  effects  of  the  war  with  Germany  to  con- 
duct such  an  affair  successfully.  The  result  was  most  gratifying.  The 
fair  exceeded  in  magnitude  and  splendor  even  the  majestic  exhibition 
given  in  Philadelphia  two  years  before,  and  the  attendance  of  visitors 
was  nearly  50  per  cent,  more  numerous.  Never  had  the  world  seen  a 
more  noteworthy  example  of  popular  and  national  revival  from  over- 
whelming depression. 

ARCTIC  EXPLORATION. 

The  ill-fated  "  Jeannette"  expedition  to  the  Arctic  regions,  sent  out  by 
Mr.  Bennett,  of  the  "New  York  Herald,"  left  San  Francisco  on  July  8, 
1879.  It  passed  through  Behring  Strait  and  entered  the  Arctic  Ocean. 
Its  course  was  shaped  toward  the  west,  with  the  intention  of  passing 
along  the  northern  coast  of  Asia.  Slow  progress  was  made,  however, 
and  on  June  23,  1881,  the  ship  was  crushed  in  the  ice.  Some  of  the 
company  made  their  way  to  the  Siberian  coast  and  were  saved,  but 
Lieutenant  DeLong,  the  commander,  and  many  others,  perished. 

A  noteworthy  expedition  was  undertaken  in  1878  by  Dr.  Nor- 
denskiold,  a  Swedish  scientist,  in  the  ship  "Vega,"  under  the  patronage 
of  Oscar  Dickson,  a  merchant  of  Gothenburg.  This  e.xpedition  made 
its  way  successfully  along  the  Siberian  coast,  doing  much  exploring 
work  and  taking  many  scientific  observations.  Finally  it  emerged 
through  BehriniT  Strait  and  entered  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Thus  the  North- 
east  Passage  from  the  .Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  was  successfully  e.xplored. 
The  "Vega"  reached  Yokohama,  Japan,  on  September  2,  1879. 

COLOGNE   CATHEDRAL. 

The  cathedral  of  Cologne,  one  of  the  most  noteworthy  edifices  in 
the  world,  was  finally  completed  in  1880.  This  building  was  begun  on 
August  15,  124S.  After  intermittent  labors  upon  it,  work  was  in  1509 
suspended,  not  to  be  resumed  for  three  centuries.  In  184S,  on  the  six 
hundredth  anniversary  of  its  foundation,  the  body  of  the  cathedral  was 
opened   for  use   with   imposing   ceremonies.      Finally   the   building  was 


548  STORY    OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

declared  finished  on  August  14,  1880,  and  on  October  15th,  following, 
it  was  formally  opened  in  tlie  presence  of  the  German  Emperor  and 
other  sovereigns.     Its  chief  spire  is  510  feet  high. 

MODERN    INVENTIONS. 

The  telephone  and  electric  light,  of  which  we  have  hitherto  spoken, 
during  the  years  1877-81  came  into  general  use,  having  been  perfected 
to  a  practical  degree.  At  the  same  time  Thomas  A.  Edison  and  other 
inventors  were  busy  devising  other  electrical  and  mechanical  devices. 
The  phonograph  was  among  these,  also  various  forms  of  electric  motors 
for  operating  machinery  and  for  propelling  railroad  cars.  In  these  years 
the  building  of  the  elevated  railroads  in  New  York  City  was  begun. 
The  typewriter,  one  of  the  most  useful  of  inventions,  was  first  publicly 
exhibited  in  1S75,  and  by  1880  began  to  be  generally  used.  In  1879  a 
transatlantic  cable  from  France  to  the  United  States  was  opened  for  use. 
An  ancient  Egyptian  obelisk,  popularly  called  Cleopatra's  Needle,  was 
in  1880  brought  to  the  United  States,  and  on  January  22,  1881,  it  was 
set  up  in  Central  Park,  New  York. 

NECROLOGY. 

The  deaths  of  1877  included  those  of  John  Lothrop  Motley,  the 
historian  ;  Thiers,  the  French  statesman  and  ex-President,  and  Leverrier, 
the  astronomer.  In  1878  died  Joseph  Henry,  the  scientist  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  Washington,  and  William  Cullen  Bryant,  the  poet. 
Espartero,  the  Spanish  Dictator,  and  Garrison,  the  Anti-Slavery  leader, 
died  in  1879.  In  1880  died  Pierce,  the  scientist,  George  Eliot,  the 
novelist,  and  Jules  Favre,  the  French  statesman. 


CHAPTER  XLIII. 


James   A.   Garfield   becomes   President   of  the   United   States — Presidenl 
Arthur — The  Isthmian   Canal  —  Star   Route  Trials — Anti- Polygamy 
Law  —  Chinese   Exclusion  —  Irish-American  Convention — Ex- 
hibitions and  Conventions — Foreign  Envoys — The  New 
Navy — Financial   Panic — Political   Doings. 


JAMES  A.  GARFIELD,  of  Ohio,  became  President  of  the  United 
States  on  March  4th,  1881.  He  had  been  nominated  after  a  severe 
struggle  within  the  RepubHcan  party,  and  when  he  became  Presi- 
dent there  was  a  strong  faction  of  that  party  in  Congress  and  else- 
where incHned  to  regard  him  with  half-concealed  antagonism.  An  open 
breach  was  in  a  few  days  caused  by  the  President's  choice  of  certain  men 
for  certain  offices,  and  the  two  Senators  from  the  State  of  New  York, 
Roscoe  Conkling  and  T.  C.  Piatt,  resigned  their  seats  as  an  act  of  protest. 
Their  friends  sought  to  re-elect  them,  but  after  a  long  struggle  failed  to 
do  so. 

Meantime  political  passions  ran  high,  and  a  disappointed  office- 
seeker  of  unsound  mind  on  July  2  shot  the  President  in  the  back,  in 
a  railroad  station  in  Washington.  The  President  lingered  for  many 
weeks  between  life  and  death,  and  finally  died  on  September  19,  to  the 
unspeakable  grief  of  the  nation.  His  assassin,  who  had  no  accomplices, 
was  arrested,  tried  and  put  to  death. 

PRESIDENT  ARTHUR. 

Upon  the  death  of  President  Garfield,  the  Vice-President,  Chester 
A.  Arthur,  became  President.  He  had  belonged  to  the  faction  of  the 
Republican  party  opposed  to  President  Garfield.  He  now,  however, 
showed  himself  impartial  in  his  attitude,  and  gave  the  country  a  particu- 
larly wise  and  dignified  Administration.  One  of  the  first  and  most  bene- 
ficent acts  of  his  administration  was  the  adoption,  at  his  recommendation, 

549 


550  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

of  a  law  for  the  reform  of  the  civil  service,  by  basing  appointments  upon 
ascertained  merit  and  prohibiting  removals  except  for  cause.  This  law 
was  scrupulously  enforced  by  President  Arthur,  and  was  the  first  of  the 
series  of  enactments  by  which  the  civil  service  of  the  United  States  has 
been  put  upon  its  present  reformed  basis. 

THE  ISTHMIAN  CANAL. 

A  French  corporation  had  been  formed  for  the  construction  of  a 
ship  canal  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  This  led  the  Secretary  of 
State,  Mr.  Blaine,  to  issue  on  June  24,  1881,  a  note  to  the  Powers,  to 
the  effect  that  any  movement  of  European  Powers  jointly  to  guarantee 
the  neutrality  of  that  canal  would  be  regarded  by  the  United  States  as 
an  uncalled-for  interference  with  American  rights.  A  prolonged  con- 
troversy upon  this  subject  continued  for  some  years. 

STAR  ROUTE  TRIALS. 

A  great  political  and  public  scandal  was  caused  by  the  discovery 
that  extensive  frauds  had  been  committed  upon  the  Government  by  certain 
contractors  for  carrying  the  mails,  upon  what  were  known  as  Star  Routes. 
On  March  4,  1882,  eight  men,  including  several  of  national  prominence, 
were  indicted  in  the  Criminal  Court  of  the  District  of  Columbia  for 
frauds  and  conspiracy  to  defraud  the  Government.  Flaws  were  found 
in  the  indictment,  and  a  new  one  was  made,  with  one  name  omitted,  and 
the  trial  began  on  June  i.  On  September  11  a  verdict  was  rendered, 
finding  two  guilty,  two  not  guilty,  and  d'sagreeing  as  to  the  rest.  A 
new  trial  began  on  December  4,  and  on  June  14,  1883,  a  verdict  of  not 
guilty  was  rendered. 

ANTI-POLYGAMY  LAW. 

The  question  of  Mormon  Polygamy  in  Utah  had  now  become  a 
pressing  one.  The  continued  existence  of  this  "  twin  relic  of  barbarism" 
was  deemed  a  reproach  to  the  nation.  Accordingly  on  the  initiative  of 
Senator  Edmunds,  of  Vermont,  a  law  was  enacted  on  March  22,  exclud- 
ing bigamists  and  polygamists  in  the  territories  from  holding  ofiice 
or  voting.  This  was  the  beginning  of  the  campaign  against  polygamy 
which  finally  led  to  the  renunciation  of  that  practice  by  Utah  upon  ihe 
admission  of  that  territory  as  a  State. 


1900— LEADING  RULERS  OF  THE  WCJRLD 


1900— LEADING  RULERS  OF  THE  WORLD  (continued) 


STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS.  553 

CHINESE  EXCLUSION. 

During  the  preceding  administration  an  attempt  had  been  made  by 
Congress  to  enact  a  law  excluding  Chinese  immigrants  from  the  United 
States.  It  had  been  thwarted  by  the  veto  of  the  President.  Another 
bill  was  now  passed  providing  for  such  exclusion  for  a  term  of  twenty 
years.  President  Arthur  vetoed  it  on  April  4,  1882.  Finally,  on  May 
6th,  a  law  was  enacted  suspending  the  immigration  of  Chinese  laborers 
for  ten  years,  and  excluding  Chinese  from  citizenship. 

IRISH-AMERICAN  CONVENTION. 

Agitation  for  secession  from  Great  Britain  was  now  rife  in  Ireland, 
and  commanded  much  sympathy  among  Americans  of  Irish  birth.  In 
April,  1883,  a  great  Irish-American  National  Convention  was  held  in 
Philadelphia,  at  which  about  1600  delegates  were  present.  A  perma- 
nent organization  was  formed,  the  object  being  to  sustain  the  National 
League  in  Ireland,  and  to  promote  the  interests  of  Irish  independence 
by  agitation  in  the  United  States. 

EXHIBITIONS  AND  CONVENTIONS. 

The  Arthur  administration  was  notable  for  the  number  of  exhibitions 
and  conventions  which  were  held  during  it  in  the  United  States.  Some 
of  the  foremost  of  these  may  be  briefly  enumerated.  An  international 
cotton  exhibition  was  opened  at  Atlanta,  Ga.,  on  October  5,  18S1.  On 
October  19th,  the  one  hundredth  anniversary  of  the  surrender  of  the 
British  at  Yorktown  was  elaborately  commemorated.  In  August,  1882, 
a  National  Mining  and  Industrial  Exhibition  was  opened  at  Denver,  Col. 
On  May  24,  1883,  a  National  Exhibition  of  Railroads  and  Railroad  Ap- 
pliances was  opened  at  Chicago.  A  Southern  Exposition  was  opened  at 
Louisville,  Ky.,  by  the  President  on  August  ist  ;  the  American  Forestry 
Congress  met  at  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  on  August  9th,  and  the  Foreign  Exhi- 
bition at  Boston  opened  on  September  3d.  On  September  4,  1884,  an 
International  Electrical  Exhibition  opened  in  Philadelphia.  An  Interna- 
tional Conference  to  adopt  a  common  prime  meridian  was  opened  at 
Washington  on  October  1st,  twenty-five  nations  being  represented.  On 
October  13th  it  adopted  the  meridian  of  Greenwich,  21  voting  for  it,  .San 

Domingo  opposing  it,  and  France  and  Brazil  not  voting.     A  World's  In- 
29 


554  STdRY   OF   ONE    IIUNUKED    YEARS. 

dustrial   Cotton    Exhibition  was  opened  at  New  Orleans  on  December, 
i6tli,  1884. 

FOREIGN   ENVOYS. 

The  first  envoys  from  the  Queen  of  Madagascar  to  the  United  States 
were  received  by  President  Arthur  at  Washington  on  March  7,  1883.  In 
September  following  the  first  Corean  envoys  were  also  received.  An- 
other interesting  incident  was  the  opening,  on  September  21,  1883,  of  a 
direct  cable  between  the  United  States  and  Brazil,  when  congratulatory 
messages  were  exchanged  by  the  President  and  Emperor. 

THE  NEW  NAVY. 

During  the  Civil  War  the  United  .States  navy  was  made  probably 
the  most  powerful  in  the  world,  and  by  the  invention  of  the  "  Monitor" 
it  revolutionized  naval  science.  After  the  war,  however,  it  rapidly  fell 
into  neglect  and  decay,  and  by  the  lime  of  which  we  are  writing  it  had 
become  quite  inadequate  to  the  needs  of  the  country.  President  Arthur 
therefore  took  the  initiative  in  the  construction  of  a  new  navy.  On 
March  26,  1884,  he  sent  a  special  message  to  Congress,  asking  for  an 
appropriation  of  money  with  which  to  begin  the  much  needed  work  of 
naval  construction.  A  small  appropriation  was  granted,  and  the  work 
was  promptly  begun,  which,  continued  on  the  lines  laid  down  by  Presi- 
dent Arthur,  has  now  resulted  in  giving  the  United  States  one  of  the 
finest  navies  in  the  world. 

FINANCIAL  PANIC. 

The  failure  of  the  firm  of  Grant  &  Ward,  of  New  York,  early  in 
May,  1884,  was  the  beginning  of  a  disastrous  panic,  which  involved  many 
firms  in  New  York  and  elsewhere  in  the  country,  and  kept  business  in  an 
unsetded  state  for  some  time. 

Great  floods  occurred  in  the  Ohio  River  V-illey  in  February,  1884, 
the  Ohio  River  rising  at  Cincinnati  no  less  than  71  feet.  Congress  appro- 
priated $500,000  for  the  relief  of  the  sufferers. 

The  Northern  Pacific  Railroad  was  completed  on  September  9,  1883. 
In  November,  1883,  the  present  system  of  standard  railroad  time  went 
into  force  throughout  the  United  States. 

The  corner-stone  of  the  pedestal  of  the  Statue  of  Liberty  in  New 
York  harbor  was  laid  on  August    5,    1884,  and  on  December  6th  fol- 


STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS.  555 

lowing  the  capstone  of  the  Washington  monument  at  Washington  was 
put  into  place.  The  latter  mon  anient  was  formally  dedicated  on  Feb- 
ruary 2  1,  1885. 

On  February  26,  1885,  was  enacted  the  so-called  contract  labor  law, 
forbidding  the  importation  of  aliens  under  contract  for  service  in  this 
country. 

POLITICAL   DOINGS. 

The  first  of  the  important  movements  in  the  Presidential  campaign 
of  1884  was  the  Greenback  National  Convention,  at  which  General  B.  F. 
Butler  was  nominated  for  President,  and  A.  M.  West  for  Vice-President. 
The  Republicans  nominated  James  G.  Blaine  and  John  A.  Logan  ;  the 
Democrats  nominated  Grover  Cleveland,  then  Governor  of  New  York, 
and  Thomas  A.  Hendricks  ;  and  the  Prohibitionists,  John  P.  St.  John  and 
William  Daniel.  The  campaign  was  marked  by  the  ferocity  of  the  at- 
tacks made  upon  the  personal  characters  of  Messrs.  Elaine  and  Cleve- 
land. Never  before  in  American  history  had  there  been  such  an  amount 
of  what  was  appropriately  termed  "mud-throwing."  The  result  of  the  poll- 
ing was  very  close,  the  election  being  decided  by  a  margin  of  only  1200 
votes  in  the  State  of  New  York.  Finally  the  Democratic  candidates, 
Cleveland  and  Hendricks,  were  declared  elected,  and  they  received  219 
and  the  Republican  candidates  182  electoral  votes. 


CHAPTER  XLIV. 


Memorable  Events  Throughout  the  World— The  Irish  Problem— Egyptian 
Revolution  —  Bombardment  of  Alexandria  —  Fall  of  Arabi  —  The 
Soudan  —  Gordon   to  the  Rescue  —  In   Khartoum— Der- 
vishes Closing  In  —  Siege   of   Khartoum  —  The 
Relief  Expedition  —  Hero  and   Martyr. 


THE  year  1881  presents  a  record  of  memorable  and  important 
events  in  almost  every  country  in  the  world.  In  Great  Britain  the 
Irish  difficulties  grew  to  the  most  formidable  proportions  ;  British 
agriculture,  already  sorely  smitten,  had  to  bear  the  keen  disap- 
pointment of  another  unfavorable  harvest.  France  was  drawn  into  the 
perilous  labyrinth  of  the  Tunisian  expedition,  while  in  her  domestic  poli- 
tics the  republic  lost  much  of  the  character  for  moderation  which  made 
her,  in  M.  Thiers'  phrase,  the  Government  that  "divides  the  least."  In 
Germany,  as  in  France,  and  also  in  Holland,  in  Belgium,  in  Spain,  in 
Hungary,  and  in  Bulgaria,  public  opinion  was  agitated  by  general  elec- 
tions ;  political  feuds  were  embittered,  and  the  dominance  of  Prince 
Bismarck  threatened. 

THE  IRISH  PROBLEM. 

The  British  politics  of  the  year  were  moulded  and  colored  through- 
out by  the  predominant  influence  of  the  Irish  question.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  year  the  opening  of  Parliament  a  month  before  the  usual  time  had 
been  arranged,  and  the  critical  situation  of  affairs  was  no  longer  denied, 
even  by  extreme  Radicals.  The  character  of  the  "reign  of  terror" 
established  in-  Ireland  by  the  Land  League  was  powerfully  exhibited  in 
the  speeches  made  by  Mr.  Forster  in  the  House  of  Commons  when 
moving  for  the  introduction  of  the  Coercion  Bills,  while  the  extracts  from 
the  speeches  and  writings  of  the  leading  Land  Leaguers,  read  at  the  trial 
of  Mr.  Parnell  and  his  associates  in  Dublin  for  conspiracy  to  prevent  the 
payment  of  rents,  showed  clearly  by  what  audaciously  perverse  teaching 
the  Irish  peasantry  had  been  demoralized.  This  trial  terminated,  as  had 
been  generally  anticipated,  in  a  disagreement  of  the  jury. 

556 


STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED   YEARS.  557 

EGYPTIAN  REVOLUTION. 

A  world-stirring  event  was  tlie  attempted  revolution  in  Egypt  in. 
1882,  under  the  lead  of  Arabi  Pasha,  who  had  been  Minister  of  War,  and 
who  had  put  himself  at  the  head  of  a  mutiny  in  the  army.  On  the  25th 
of  May  the  English  and  French  Consuls-General  presented  an  ultimatum 
to  the  Egyptian  Ministers,  demanding  the  temporary  removal  from  the 
country  of  Arabi  and  two  other  leaders  of  the  mutinous  soldiery,  and  the 
resignation  of  the  Ministry.  The  Khedive  gladly  assented  to  these 
terms,  but  the  army  and  the  Nationalists,  not  believing  that  the  fleets 
would  be  allowed  to  fire  a  shot,  and  believing,  with  better  reason,  that  the 
Sultan  would  not  jeopardize  his  power  as  Caliph  in  a  conflict  for  Chris- 
tians against  Moslems,  were  obstinate  and  threatening.  The  Ministers 
resigned,  but  the  Khedive  could  find  none  to  succeed  them.  His  ap- 
peals to  the  Ulema,  the  Notables,  the  heads  of  departments,  and  the 
officers  were  met  with  insolent  defiance.  The  army  clamored  for  the 
restoration  of  Arabi,  and  warned  the  trading  classes  that  unless  the 
Khedive  yielded,  life  and  property  would  not  be  safe.  The  Khedive 
did  yield,  and  quickened  the  flight  of  Europeans  from  Cairo  to  Ale.x- 
andria,  where  hundreds  crowded  into  the  ships  in  the  roads.  Whether 
Arabi  remained  master  of  the  situation  or  the  Western  Powers  forcibly 
interfered,  the  danger  appeared  equally  great. 

BOMBARDMENT  OF  ALEXANDRIA. 

In  view  of  probable  action,  Arabi's  preparations  for  resistance  at 
Alexandria  could  not  be  overlooked.  In  spite  of  broken  pledges,  and 
orders  from  the  Khedive  and  the  Sultan,  Sir  Beauchamp  Seymour  re- 
ported that  the  works  on  the  forts  were  actively  carried  on,  and  on  the 
6th  of  July  the  admiral  demanded  their  instant  cessation  under  penalty 
of  bombardment.  Protests  by  the  Khedive  and  the  foreign  consuls  were 
outweighed  by  Arabi's  practical  defiance,  and  on  the  loth  Sir  Beauchamp 
Seymour  insisted  on  the  surrender  of  the  forts  at  the  mouth  of  the  har- 
bor as  a  material  guarantee.  The  Egyptian  ministers  strove  to  negotiate, 
but  the  admiral's  resolution  was  fixed,  and  Arabi,  confident  in  the  strength 
of  the  forts,  had  no  thought  of  yielding.  In  the  early  morning  of  the 
nth,  eight  British  ironclads  and  five  gunboats  advanced  to  the  attack. 
The  Egyptian  guns,  of  large  calibre  and  modern  construction,  were  well 
served,  but  in  a  few  hours  the  forts  were  battered  down  or  silenced,  with 


558  STORV  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

slight  loss  on  the  British  side  and  with  trifling  damage  to  the  ships. 
Next  day,  as  the  bombardment  was  about  to  be  renewed,  negotiations 
were  opened  by  the  display  of  flags  of  truce,  under  cover  of  which  the 
Egyptian  forces  evacuated  the  town,  setting  fire  to  the  European  quar- 
ter and  letting  loose  upon  it  gangs  of  reckless  plunderers.  Fortunately 
a  plan  for  the  Khedive's  murder  was  balked,  and  the  British  bluejackets 
and  marines  quickly  restored  order  in  the  streets.  In  a  few  days  a  small 
body  of  British  troops  was  landed  under  Sir  Archibald  Alison,  who  was, 
however,  neither  able  nor  authorized  to  strike  a  blow  at  Arabi's  army. 

FALL   or  ARABL 

The  Khedive  at  length  proclaimed  Arabi  a  rebel,  and  Lord  Duf- 
ferin  invited  the  Sultan  to  issue  a  similar  proclamation  before  joining 
the  expedition.  The  procrastination  of  the  Porte  tided  the  British  Gov- 
ernment over  a  difficult  crisis.  Diplomatic  questions  were  still  at  issue 
when  the  reinforcements  from  England  began  to  land  at  Alexandria,  on 
the  loth  of  August.  Admiral  flewett  had  occupied  Suez,  to  be  ready  for 
the  Indian  contingent,  a  week  earlier.  Sir  Garnet  Wolseley,  the  com- 
mander of  the  expedition,  arrived  in  Egypt  on  the  15th,  a  day  or  two 
before  the  parliamentary  adjournment,  with  Sir  John  Adye  as  chief  of  the 
staff  and  second  in  command  ;  and  General  Macpherson,  with  the  Indian 
troops,  appeared  at  the  Red  Sea  port  a  few  days  later.  Sir  Garnet 
Wolseley's  plan  of  campaign  was  to  advance  on  Cairo  by  the  Fresh- 
water Canal.  Though  supplies  were  short  and  the  railway  almost  use- 
less from  lack  of  engines  and  rolling  stock  carried  off  by  Arabi,  it  was 
thought  necessary  to  push  on.  After  the  repulse  of  an  attack  on  the 
advanced  British  posts  at  Kassassin  on  the  28th,  Arabi  and  his  army 
retired  on  a  strongly  entrenched  position  at  Tel-el-Kebir.  For  a  fortnight 
the  British  general  reserved  his  final  blow  ;  even  successful  skirmishes 
were  not  followed  up.  At  length,  on  the  evening  of  the  12th  of  Sep- 
tember, orders  were  issued  for  an  assault  on  the  Egyptian  position. 
The  troops,  numbering  under  14,000  men,  with  60  guns,  began  to  move 
before  dawn,  and  had  drawn  close  to  the  Tel-el-Kebir  lines  unnoticed  be- 
fore 5  o'clock.  The  instant  the  alarm  was  given  the  British  soldiery 
charged,  and  after  a  few  minutes'  struggle  the  enemy's  intrenchments 
were  won.  The  Egyptian  army  fled  in  wild  rout  toward  Cairo,  outrun 
by  Arabi  himself. 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  559 

No  time  was  lost  in  pursuing  the  advantage  of  this  complete  and 
crushing  victory.  General  Drury-Lowe  advanced  by  a  forced  march  on 
the  capital,  which  was  instantly  surrendered  by  the  Governor,  and  occu- 
pied peaceably  by  a  mere  handful  of  I'ritish  troops.  Arabi  and  his  lieu- 
tenant, Toulba  Pasha,  gave  themselves  up,  and  Cairo  welcomed  the  vic- 
tors, as  they  rapidly  arrived,  with  demonstrations  of  hostility  to  the  rebels. 
The  rebellion  soon  died  out ;  strong  positions  at  Kafr-dawar,  Aboukir 
and  Damietta  were  surrendered,  the  insurgent  army  disbanded,  and  only 
a  few  of  the  chiefs  held  in  custody.  The  Khedive  returned  in  triumph 
from  Alexandria  to  Cairo,  where,  September  30,  the  victorious  British 
troops  were  paraded  before  him.     Arabi  was  exiled  to  Ceylon. 

THE   SOUDAN. 

The  re-conquest  of  the  Soudan  from  the  "  Mahdi,"  a'  pretended 
prophet  or  reformer  of  Islam,  who  during  the  troubles  at  Cairo  had 
become  supreme  throughout  the  vast  and  vague  regions  south  of  Khar- 
toum, was  attempted  in  March,  1883,  when  Colonel  Hicks,  a  retired 
Anglo-Indian  officer,  was  despatched  as  chief  of  the  staff,  and  with  the 
Egyptian  troops  achieved,  a  few  weeks  later,  a  victory  over  the  Mahdi's 
forces,  which,  however,  was  not  decisive.  Hicks  Pasha  later  became  com- 
mander-in-chief and  in  the  autumn  advanced  again  upon  the  centre  ot 
Mahdi's  strength  at  Obeid.  For  weeks  nothing  was  known  ot  his  move- 
ments, but  at  length  the  news  reached  Khartoum  that  the  whole  of  the 
Egyptian  army,  with  the  general  and  the  other  European  officers,  had 
been  surrounded  and  destroyed  by  the  rebels.  The  consternation  at 
Cairo  was  profound,  for  not  long  before  some  troops  moving  near  Sua- 
kim,  the  post  on  the  Red  Sea  through  which  intercourse  with  Khartoum 
was  kept  up,  had  suffered  heavy  loss,  the. British  Consul,  Captain  Mon- 
crieff,  having  fallen  among-  others.  The  remnants  of  Hicks  Pasha's 
force  were,  for  the  most  part,  drawn  together  in  Khartoum  by  another 
English  officer,  though  some  outlying  posts  were  left  to  themselves.  It 
was  doubted  whether  Khartoum  could  hold  out,  and  the  difficulty  was 
increased  by  the  folly  of  the  Governor  of  Suakim,  in  a  mismanaged 
sortie. 

GORDON  TO  THE  RESCUE. 

It  was  on  November  20,  1883,  that  the  news  of  the  Mahdi's  victon,' 
over  General    Hicks  reached  Cairo  and    London.      For  several   weeks 


56o  StORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED   YEARS. 

succeeding  the  arrival  of  the  news  there  was  panic  in  Cairo  and  con- 
fusion in  the  councils  in  London. 

On  January  1 7th  General  Charles  Gordon  received  at  noon,  in 
Brussels,  a  telegram  from  Lord  Wolseley  summoning  him  at  once  to 
London.  He  understood  what  it  meant :  those  who  had  first  claim  had 
called  him,  and  he  obeyed  instantly.  At  6  a.m.  on  the  morning  of  the 
1 8th  he  was  in  London,  and  had  prolonged  interviews  witii  Lord  Wolse- 
ley. At  3  30  P.M.  on  the  same  day  he  saw  several  of  the  Ministers. 
This  last  interview  is  so  important,  looked  at  in  the  light  of  what  fol- 
lowed, that  it  had  best  be  described  in  his  own  words : 

"At  noon  he,  Wolseley,  came  to  me  and  took  me  to  the  Ministers. 
He  went  in  and  talked  to  the  Ministers,  and  came  back  and  said,  '  Her 
Majesty's  Government  want  you  to  undertake  this  :  Government  are 
determined  to  evacuate  Soudan,  for  they  will  not  guarantee  future  gov- 
ernment. Will  you  go  and  do  it?'  I  said,  'Yes.'  He  said,  'Go  in.'  I 
went  in  and  saw  them.  They  .said,  '  Did  Wolseley  tell  you  our  orders?' 
I  said,  '  Yes.'  I  said,  '  You  will  not  guarantee  future  government  of 
Soudan,  and  you  wish  me  to  go  up  to  evacuate  now.'  They  said,  '  Yes,' 
and  it  was  over,  and  I  left  at  8  p.m.  for  Calais." 

IN    KHARTOUM. 

On  February  i8th  Gordon  reached  Khartoum  and  took  up  his 
quarters  in  the  palace  which  had  so  often  in  past  years  been  his  lonely 
home,  and  which  was  destined  a  few  months  later  to  become  his  tomb. 
"He  had  come  again  to  hold  the  balance  level,"  he  told  the  people. 
"There  were  to  be  no  more  Bashi-Bazouks.  He  had  not  brought 
troops,  but  had  come  alone.  He  would  not  fight  with  any  weapons 
but  justice.  "  Then  the  chains  were  struck  off  the  captives'  limbs  in  the 
crowded  prisons  ;  the  records  of  unremitted  taxes  were  burned  in  the 
palace  square,  and  the  stocks  and  bastinado  instruments  were  broken  up. 

dervishe:s  closing  in. 

On  March  loth  the  situation  has  become  still  more  threatening. 
The  village  of  El-Fon,  on  the  Blue  Nile,  is  reported  to  be  "full  of  rebel 
Arabs  with  banners."  The  Sheikh  el-Mugdi,  a  leader  supposed  to  be 
faithful  to  the  Government,  reports  most  of  the  sheikhs  in  and  around 
Khartoum  to  be  traitors.     Many  of  the  Government  clerks  in   the  city 


STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS.  56 1 

are  also  false.  Berber  and  Khartoum  will  be  simultaneously  attacked, 
he  thinks. 

At  noon  on  this  day  the  telegraph  wire  is  severed  between  Shendy 
and  Berber,  and  on  the  following  morning,  March  iith,  a  large  force  of 
Arabs  appear  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Blue  Nile  within  sight  of  Khar- 
toum. The  Suakim  expedition  was  described  at  the  time  as  being  due 
to  "  Parliament  having  forced  the  running  "  of  the  Government.  Alas, 
that  momentous  issues  of  life,  death  and  disaster  should  be  made  the 
weapons  with  which  the  ignoble  strife  of  party  is  carried  on.  This  forcing 
of  the  hand  of  Government  also  forced  the  Arab  hand.  Before  it  the 
chances  of  evacuation  had  certainly  not  diminished  during  the  first  fort- 
night of  the  experiment,  nay,  they  had  steadily  improved,  but  henceforth 
there  was  no  hope. 

The  operations  around  Suakim  lasted  exactly  three  weeks.  When 
they  began,  Khartoum  was  open  on  every  side  ;  when  they  ended,  the 
siege  had  begun. 

SIEGE  or   KHARTOUM. 

For  nearly  the  first  six  months  following  the  cutting  off  of  communi- 
cation with  Khartoum  we  know  little  of  what  took  place  in  the  beleag- 
uered city.  During  March,  April  and  May  ceaseless  labor  in  earth- 
works, mines,  wire-entanglements,  expeditions  for  food,  went  on  ;  there 
was  a  good  deal  of  desultory  firing  and  fighting.  In  the  middle  of  March, 
four  days  after  the  Arabs  first  sat  down  before  Khartoum,  a  battle 
occurred,  in  which  a  portion  of  the  garrison  was  signally  defeated.  The 
two  Pachas  in  command,  accused  by  their  soldiers  of  treachery,  were  tried 
by  court-martial  and  put  to  death.  The  crj' of  "treason"  by  beaten 
troops  is  a  dangerous  one  to  listen  to,  and  whatever  may  have  been  the 
faults  of  Said  and  Hassan  Pachas,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  their  e.xecu- 
tion  was  all  too  hastily  decided  on,  and  was  a  matter  of  deep  regret  to 
Gordon  during  the  remainder  of  the  siesfe. 

The  intention  of  the  Arabs  was  evidently  to  wear  out  the  patience 
of  the  garrison  by  scarcity  of  food,  and  by  the  moral  effect  of  a  continuous 
attack  always  kept  up,  but  never  pressed  home  to  a  decisive  point ;  and 
there  is  a  significant  entry  in  the  summary  of  the  events  of  the  first  six 
months  of  the  siege  that  Gordon  wrote  to  Lord  Wolseley  which  shows 
how  well  these  tactics  succeeded.  "The  square  was  always  broken,"  he 
writes.     At  last  the  river  was  at  its  topmost  height ;    if  any  effort  was  tc 


562  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

be  made  to  communicate  with  the  outer  world  it  must  be  done  at  once. 
It  is  now  Septemljer  ;  for  six  months  the  weary  work  has  gone  on  ;  tliree 
months'  food  yet  remains.  Is  there  no  one  coming  over  that  vast  desert 
to  the  north,  whose  level  horizon  is  visible  for  leagues  and  leagues  from 
the  palace  roof,  where  day  after  day  Gordon  and  his  two  companions, 
Stewart  and  Power,  look  out  in  expectation  ?  All  the  plans  for  evacu- 
ation, government  and  settlement  of  the  .Soudan  have  long  ago  given 
place  to  a  weary  fight  against  odds  for  life.  Has  the  world  gone  to  sleep 
away  there,  twelve  hundred  miles  beyond  that  clear-cut  line  of  sky  and 
desert?  What  are  all  these  armies  of  Egypt  and  of  England  doing  ? 
"You  have  untold  stores  of  gold,  and  can  you  not  at  least  make  it  into 
keys  to  unlock  this  terrible  silence,  sending  us  messengers  if  you  will  not 

send  us  soldiers  ?  " 

THE  RELIEF  EXPEDITION. 

It  was  at  the  end  of  the  first  week  in  Autjust  that  the  Enirlish 
Government  finally  decided  to  send  out  a  relief  expedition  to  the  Soudan, 
but  for  another  week  after  that  date  it  was  still  possible  for  them  to  point 
with  truth  to  the  conflicting  counsels  and  opposite  opinions  of  their 
advisers  at  home  and  on  the  Nile. 

It  was  on  the  evening  of  August  12th  that  the  project  of  a  boat- 
expedition,  first  put  forward  by  Lord  Wolseley  in  April,  and  often  urged 
by  him  in  the  succeeding  months,  was  at  length  sanctioned.  The  race 
had  now  become  a  desperate  one.  The  price  that  must  be  paid  for  time 
wasted  in  diluted  despatch  and  condensed  telegram,  for  all  the  windy 
methods  of  administrative  delay,  has  to  be  o-iven  in  flesh  and  blood  ;  and 
yet  there  is  still  time  to  win,  but  no  hour  can  be  let  slip,  no  mile  of  all 
those  thousands  must  be  put  off,  even  irom  sunset  to  the  next  sunrise  ; 
and  not  one  of  the  ten  thousand  links  in  the  chain  of  this  immense  effort 
can  be  slackened  tor  a  single  moment. 

Writing  on  September  17th,  Gordon,  summing  up  the  reports  that 
have  reached  him  during  the  previous  week  of  the  advance  ot  English 
troops  by  the  Nile  Valley  to  reach  Khartoum,  says,  "  I  have  the  strongest 
suspicion  that  these  tales  of  troops  at  Dongola  and  Meroe  are  all  gas 
works,  and  if  you  wanted  to  find  Her  Majesty's  forces  you  would  have  to 
go  to  Shepherd's  hotel  in  Cairo."  Alas,  this  estimate  was  even  too  san- 
guine !  It  is  true  the  first  infantry  battalion  did  reach  Dongola  about 
that  date,  but  the  boats  which  \\(^rc  rocarrv  men  and  food  over  the  cata- 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  563 

racts  of  the  Batn-el-Hager  were  only  beginning  to  arrive  at  Alexandria  ; 
and  the  troops  destined  to  form  the  desert  column  which  was  to  cross 
the  Bayuda  from  Korti  to  Metemma  had  not  yet  quitted  England. 

HERO   AND    MARTYR. 

This  is  what  had  happened  :  Three  hours  before  daybreak  on  Jan- 
uary 26th  the  Arabs  made  a  final  assault  upon  the  lines.  Of  the  details 
of  this  last  attack  we  know  very  little.  We  know  that  the  sight  of  the 
wounded  from  the  battle  of  Abu  Klea,  who  had  been  brought  to  the 
camp  of  the  Mahdi,  produced  a  profound  effect  upon  the  Baggara  and 
other  fighting  tribes  of  the  army.  These  men,  inflamed  at  the  appear- 
ance of  their  stricken  comrades,  loudly  demanded  to  be  led  at  once 
against  the  city.  The  attack,  delivered  under  a  chosen  leader,  in  the 
darkest  hour  of  the  early  morning,  was  directed  against  the  lines  near 
the  gates  of  Bourre  and  Mesalamieh. 

On  this  morning  of  Monday,  January  26th,  the  moon,  just  past  its 
first  quarter,  set  at  i  o'clock.  From  that  hour  until  the  earliest  dawn, 
profound  darkness  wrapped  the  dying  city  and  the  hostile  camps.  It 
is  certain  that  the  Arabs,  as  they  approached  the  ramparts,  were  met 
by  the  feeblest  resistance.  Hunger  had  now  brought  to  the  lowest 
point  the  spirit  of  a  garrison  never  strong,  but  whether  actual  treach- 
ery added  its  black  help  to  famine,  or  whether  the  wretched  soldiery 
fell  back  from  the  parapets  in  panic  before  the  first  onset  of  the  enemy, 
will  probably  never  be  accurately  known.  Once  the  lines  were  gained  by 
the  Arabs,  the  city  lay  at  the  mercy  of  its  assailants.  Shortly  before  day- 
break they  appear  to  have  advanced  cautiously  into  the  town,  and  as  the 
winter  dawn  was  breaking  they  reached  the  neighborhood  of  the  palace. 
Here,  certain  that  the  entire  city  was  now  in  their  possession,  they  gave 
vent  to  those  shrill  shouts  of  triumph  with  which  the  soldiers  of  Islam 
celebrate  victory.  It  was  at  this  hour,  just  as  day  was  breaking,  that 
Gordon,  roused  from  one  ot  those  short  and  troubled  slumbers  which  for 
months  had  been  his  only  rest,  quitted  the  palace  and  moved,  at  the  head 
of  a  small  party  of  soldiers  and  servants,  towards  the  church  of  the  Aus- 
trian Mission.  This  building  lay  to  the  east  of  the  palace,  from  which  it 
was  separated  by  an  open  space  of  ground.  Some  months  earlier  the 
church  had  been  made  the  reserve  magazine  of  the  town,  the  surround- 
ing houses  were  cleared  from  its  vicinit)',  and  it  had  been  silently  selected 


564  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

as  the  spot  where  a  last  desperate  resistance  might  be  maintained  if 
ever  the  final  moment  of  the  defence  of  Khartoum  should  arrive. 

That  supreme  moment  had  now  indeed  come. 

Walking  a  few  yards  in  advance  of  his  party,  which  did  not  number 
more  than  twenty  men,  Gordon  drew  near  the  church.  The  short  and 
mysterious  dawn  of  the  desert  was  passing  into  broader  day  ;  over  the 
palm  trees  on  the  edge  of  the  blue  Nile  the  eastern  sky  was  flushed  with 
the  red  of  the  coming  sun.  From  the  lost  town,  still  lying  in  shadow  to 
the  right,  the  shouts  of  a  victorious  enemy  and  the  cries  of  a  perishing 
people  rose  in  deeper  volumes  of  sound.  Ere  yet  the  little  band  of 
footmen  had  crossed  the  open  space  between  palace  and  church,  a 
body  of  Arabs  issued  from  a  neighboring  street.  For  a  moment  the  two 
parties  stood  almost  face  to  face,  then  a  volley  of  musketry  flashed  out 
at  close  ranofe  in  the  vet  uncertain  light,  and  the  bravest  and  noblest 
soldier  of  our  time  was  no  more. 

We  may  close  the  record  of  the  years  in  hand  with  the  items  that 
Roumania  assumed  the  title  of  a  Kingdom  on  March  26,  1881  ;  that  in 
the  same  year  Russia  seized  Geok  Tepe  and  made  other  conquests  in 
Central  Asia,  and  that  in  1884  Germany  began  her  great  work  of 
founding  colonies  in  Africa. 


CHAPTER  XLV. 


Panama    Canal  —  Various    Routes  Surveyed  —  DeLesseps*  Scheme  —  Re- 
organization— St.  Gothard  Tunnel  —  The  East  River  Bridge — 
Great  EarthqueJces — Louis   Pasteur — Necrology. 


THE  common  remark  that  the  world  is  now  in  the  Engineering  Age 
is  well  borne  out  by  the  history  of  the  four  years  now  under  con- 
sideration, namely,  from  the  spring  of  1881  to  the  spring  of  1885. 
In  those  years  engineering  activity  in  many  directions  was 
signally  manifest  all  over  the  world,  and  it  was  marked  by  at  least 
three  works  of  the  greatest  importance. 

The  first  of  these,  as  yet  unsuccessful,  was  the  construction  of  a 
canal  across  the  Central  American  Isthmus.  This  stupendous  work  was 
undertaken  by  Count  Ferdinand  de  Lesseps,  the  French  engineer  and 
speculator,  who  had  constructed  the  Suez  Canal,  and  the  place  chosen 
was  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  Porto  Bello,  or  Chagres,  on  the  Caribbean 
Sea,  and  Old  Panama  on  the  Pacific  were  among  the  earliest  settlements 
on  the  Isthmus,  and  the  route  between  them  has  been  an  established  line 
of  communication  from  ocean  to  ocean  since  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century. 

The  moderate  elevation  of  the  summit  pass,  less  than  for  all  others 
except  that  of  the  Nicaragua  route,  and  the  narrow  breadth  of  the  Isthmus, 
caused  it  to  be  one  of  the  earliest  suggested  lines  for  a  canal,  and  induced 
many  reconnaissances  of  the  locality,  including  in  1827  one  by  Lloyd,  an 
English  engineer,  but  not  until  1838  were  any  very  definite  steps  under- 
taken. In  that  year  Salamon,  of  Paris,  who  had  secured  a  concession 
from  the  Columbian  Government,  organized  a  company  to  build  an  open 
sea-level  canal,  proposing  to  follow  substantially  the  lines  of  De  Lesseps' 
subsequent  attempt,  the  project  being  based  upon  the  erroneous  suppo- 
sition that  a  pass  only  forty  feet  above  sea  level  had  been  discovered. 
On  these  representations  the  French  Government  five  years  later  directed 
a  more  thorough  examination  of  the  line,  which  was  really  the  first 
endeavor  to  obtain  authentic  information,  and  Garvella's  surveys,  which, 

565 


566  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

by  the  way,  reported   the  divide   to   be   nearly  400  feet  above  the   sea 
instead  of  40,  have  since  formed  the  basis  of  subsequent  projects. 

The  rush  of  yold-seekers  across  the  Isthmus  to  California  brought 
about  the  construction  of  the  Panama  railroad,  for  which  the  concession 
was  obtained  in  1850,  and  the  road  opened  for  traffic  in  1S55.  Bringing 
transit  across  the  Isthmus  more  prominently  before  the  public,  it  invited 
renewed  attention  to  tlie  feasibility  ut  a  canal,  and  induced  increased 
interest  in  the  subject,  a  project  and  estimate  for  a  canal  with  locks  being 
prepared  by  the  chief  engineer  of  the  railway,  which  he  believed  could 
be  completed  for  from  ^60,000,000  to  jji  15,000,000,  according  to  the 
summit  level  selected. 

VARIOUS   ROUTES   SURVEYED. 

President  Grant  was  an  earnest  advocate  of  a  canal,  not  necessarily, 
however,  at  Panama,  and  under  his  direction  surveys  were  made  m  i(S76 
along  several  routes  by  Commander  Lull  and  Mr.  Menocal  of  the  navy. 
They  did  not  consider  a  sea-level  canal  at  Panama  practicable,  but  pro- 
posed a  plan  for  one  with  locks,  loUowing  fairly  closely  the  line  of  the 
railway,  reaching  the  suiiimit  level  at  a  lieight  of  125  feet  above  the  sea, 
and  crossing  the  Cordilleras  through  the  Culebra  pass.  The  length 
would  be  about  45^  miles,  and  the  cost  was  estimated  at  ^96,000,000. 

The  next  year  Lieutenant  Wyse,  of  the  French  navy,  who  had  i)ro- 
cured  a  concession  for  a  French  association,  spent  four  or  five  months 
with  a  party  of  surveyors  in  field  work  on  the  Isthmus,  examining 
several  modifications  of  the  proposed  line,  but  carrying  none  of  his  sur- 
veys completely  through  from  ocean  to  ocean.  He  reported  in  favor  of 
a  sea-level  canal  by  way  of  the  Chagres  and  Rio  Grande,  involving  a 
ship  tunnel  about  5  miles  in  length.  His  estimate  was  only  1^95,000,000, 
or  less  than  Lull's  for  a  canal  with  a  summit  level  of  125  feet,  whereas, 
of  course  it  must  cost  much  more. 

DE  LESSEPS'  SCHEME. 

On  the  strength  of  this  report.  Count  Ferdinand  de  Lesseps  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  a  conference  to  consider  the  various  schemes  for 
canals,  and  delegates  to  the  proposed  congress  assembled  at  Paris  in 
1879.  Twenty-four  countries  were  represented  by  135  engineers  and 
scientists,  and  a  number  of  routes,  includino-  those  at  Nicaragfua,  Panama, 
Tehuantepec,  Atrato  and  San   Bias,  were  discussed.     De  Lesseps'   in- 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  567 

tluence  dominated  the  congress  ;  and,  rendered  sanguine  by  his  success 
at  Suez,  he  advocated  a  sea-level  canal  at  Panama,  substituting  an  open 
cut  for  the  proposed  tunnel,  and  secured  its  adoption  by  the  congress  by 
an  overwhelming  vote.  The  original  estimate  of  cost  was  $120,000,000, 
subsequently  increased  by  including  the  necessary  harbor  improvements, 
contingencies,  expenses  of  financing,  etc.,  to  $210,000,000. 

Immediately  after  the  adjournment  of  the  congress  a  company  was 
organized  in  France  for  building  the  canal,  which  secured  the  concession 
previously  granted  to  Lieutenant  Wyse,  and  in  1881  operations  were 
begun  on  the  Isthmus.  The  total  length  of  the  canal  as  projected  w^as 
about  46  miles,  following  generally  the  line  of  the  railway.  It  was  to  be 
72  to  78  feet  wide  at  the  bottom  and  92  to  164  feet  at  the  water  level, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  banks,  with  a  depth  of  28  to  291^  feet. 
The  cut  through  Culebra  pass  would  be  about  330  feet  deep.  The  canal 
was  to  be  completed  by  1889. 

Progress,  however,  was  slow,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  disposing  of 
the  shares,  by  which  the  necessary  funds  were  being  provided,  but  mainh' 
in  consequence  of  the  unforeseen  difficulties  of  construction  and  the  un- 
healthfulness  of  the  climate.  In  1885  a  commission  of  French  engineers 
examined  the  work,  and,  reporting  that  the  date  for  completion  must  be 
extended,  recommended  its  continuation  to  save  the  stockholders  from 
ruin.  By  December,  1887,  when  nearly  $275,000,000  had  been  spent, 
the  sea-level  project  was  abandoned  and  a  system  of  eight  locks  decided 
upon,  which  Eiffel,  the  eminent  engineer,  agreed  to  complete  in  three 
years. 

REORGANIZATION. 

Another  loan  was  obtained  but  further  financial  difficulties  arose, 
resulting  in  the  cessation  of  work  for  lack  of  funds  in  March,  1889. 
The  receivers  who  acquired  the  property  referred  the  technical  questions 
involved  in  the  canal  construction  to  a  commission  selected  from  among 
the  best  engineers  in  France,  which  reported  in  May,  1890,  recommend- 
ing further  investigation  of  certain  vital  features  of  the  route  before 
definite  plans  could  be  adopted. 

The  Government  of  Columbia  extending  the  concession,  a  new  com- 
pany was  organized  in  1894,  further  surveys  were  made,  the  commission 
for  that  purpose  including  General  Abbot  of  this  country,  and,  by  1897, 
lairly  definite  plans  had  been  decided  upon.    To  prosecute  them  another 


568  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

company  has  recently  been  formed,  embracing  a  large  amount  of  Ameri- 
can capital  and  incorporated  under  the  laws  of  New  Jersey. 

ST.  GOTHARD  TUNNEL. 

In  a  former  chapter  we  have  told  of  the  piercing  of  the  Alps  by 
the  Mont  Cenis  Railroad  tunnel.  The  success  of  that  gigantic  enter- 
prise led,  in  1872,  to  the  beginning  of  another  such  tunnel,  under  Mt. 
St.  Gothard.  Work  was  begun  at  both  ends  in  September,  1872,  by 
hand.  After  April  and  July,  1873,  machinery  was  called  into  play,  and 
the  work  proceeded  more  rapidly.  On  February  29,  1880,  the  two 
headings  came  together,  with  a  horizontal  difference  of  only  two  inches, 
and  a  lateral  difference  of  thirteen  inches.  The  tunnel  was  formally 
opened,  and  the  first  passenger  train  was  sent  through  it  on  November 
1,  1 88 1.  Its  actual  length  is  nine  and  three-quarter  miles,  and  its  cost 
was  about  $700  a  lineal  yard. 

In  June,  1881,  an  ancient  aqueduct  tunnel,  eleven  miles  long,  con- 
structed for  supplying  Bologna  with  water,  was  reopened  and  put  into 
use  again. 

Work  on  the  tunnel  under  the  Hudson  River  in  New  York,  which 
had  been  begun  in  1874,  was  suspended  in  1883  after  an  e.x;penditure  of 
more  than  $1,000,000. 

Finally,  che  Arlberg  tunnel,  under  the  Alps,  which  had  been  begun 
in  1880,  was  completed  in  November,  1883,  and  trains  began  using  it  in 
September,  1884.  It  is  six  and  a  half  miles  long,  and  cost  about  $500 
a  yard. 

THE   EAST    RIVER    BRIDGE. 

The  third  of  the  great  engineering  works  mentioned  was  the  com- 
pletion of  the  East  River  bridge  between  New  York  and  Brooklyn,  the 
greatest  suspension  bridge  in  the  world.  The  first  steps  toward  erecting 
this  bridge  were  taken  in  April,  1867,  when  a  company  for  the  purpose 
was  chartered  by  the  State  of  New  York.  John  A.  Roebling,  builder  of 
the  Niagara  suspension  bridge,  was  chosen  as  the  chief  engineer.  He 
died  before  the  work  was  fairly  begun,  and  his  son,  Washington  A.  Roeb- 
ling, succeeded  to  his  place  and  carried  the  great  work  to  completion. 
Congressional  legislation  favorable  to  the  enterprise  was  secured  in  the 
spring  of  1869. 


SULTAN   OF  TURKEY 


KMEDIVE  OF  EGYPT 


1900— LEADINC  KLLERS  OF  THE  WORLD  (continued) 


I90O— IN  THK  HU\VP:I.S  of  the   earth 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  571 

The  bridge  was  formally  opened  on  May  24,  1883,  with  a  grand 
military  and  civic  display,  and  generally  decoration  of  buildings  in  both 
cities.  The  popular  enthusiasm  and  the  enormous  crowds  of  sightseers 
thronging  everywhere  were  the  greatest  ever  witnessed.  President 
Arthur  and  Cabinet,  Governor  Cleveland,  and  many  distinguished  per- 
sons were  present.  William  C.  Kingsley,  president  of  the  board  of 
trustees,  formally  presented  the  bridge  to  the  mayors  of  the  two  cities. 
At  night  general  illuminations,  fireworks  displayed  from  the  bridge,  open 
air  concerts  and  rejoicing  closed  the  eventful  day. 

GREAT  EARTHQUAKES. 

Earthquakes  have  been  known  in  all  ages  of  the  world,  but  in  the 
four  years  of  which  we  are  writing  they  were  exceptionally  numerous  and 
destructive.  On  March  4th  and  15th,  1881,  the  southern  part  of  Italy 
was  violently  shaken,  the  isle  of  Ischia  was  desolated,  hundreds  of  houses 
were  destroyed,  and  hundreds  of  lives  were  lost.  On  April  3d,  following, 
the  Greek  island  of  Scio,  the  birthplace  of  Homer,  was  shaken.  Nearly 
every  building  on  it  was  ruined,  and  4000  lives  were  lost.  In  Septem- 
ber, 1882,  the  Panama  Railroad  was  wrecked  by  a  shock.  Ischia  was 
again  ravaged  on  July  28,  1883,  '^ith  a  loss  of  nearly  2000  lives. 

At  the  end  of  August,  1883,  occurred  one  of  the  mightiest  convul- 
sions of  nature  ever  known.  The  great  mountain  of  Krakatoa,  in  the 
East  Indies,  was  literally  rent  asunder,  and  Java,  Sumatra,  and  neighbor- 
ing islands  were  desolated.  Many  thousands  of  lives  were  lost.  Vast 
tidal  waves  were  generated,  which  were  felt  with  destructive  force  all 
around  the  globe.  And  the  stupendous  volumes  of  dust  thrown  into  the 
air  aroused  gorgeous  phenomena  of  "  red  sunsets  "  in  all  parts  of  the 
world  for  months  thereafter. 

Serious  shocks  occurred  in  England  in  1884,  and  at  the  close  of  that 
year  an  earthquake  destroyed  1200  lives  in  Spain.  Finally,  in  February 
of  1885,  about  700  persons  were  killed  by  another  Spanish  earthquake. 

LOUIS  PASTEUR. 

The  year  1884  must  ever  be  memorable  in  the  annals  of  science  and 
of  humanity  for  the  work  of  Louis  Pasteur.  This  illustrious  French 
scientist  had  already  won  distinction  for  his  researches  into  bioloo-y  and 
the  germ  theory.     It  was  he  who  most  surely  demonstrated  the  fallacy  of 


572  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

"  spontaneous  generation  "  and  proved  that  all  life  must  proceed  from 
pre-existent  life.  He  showed,  too,  that  fermentation,  putrefaction,  and 
similar  processes,  were  the  result  of  the  propagation  of  living  organisms 
of  microscopic  size,  and  that  if  all  germs  of  such  life  could  be  excluded, 
those  processes  could  not  take  place.  From  this  he  proceeded  to  the 
still  more  important  discovery  that  many  of  the  worst  diseases  are  caused 
by  such  germs,  and  that  the  diseases  can  be  prevented  simply  by  exclu- 
sion of  the  germs.  He  discovered  thus  an  absolute  cure  for  anthrax,  one 
of  the  most  dreaded  of  diseases,  and  also  for  a  disease  which  was  destroy- 
ing the  silkworms  and  ruining  the  silk  industry  of  France.  In  1884,  he 
announced  his  discovery  of  a  cure  for  hydrophobia  by  inoculation. 

As  a  result  of  Pasteur's  work  the  whole  modern  theory  of  germ 
diseases  and  the  science  of  bacteriology  have  come  into  being.  Lister, 
with  his  invaluable  system  of  sterilization,  was  a  disciple  of  Pasteur.  So 
were  the  scientists  who  discovered  preventive  or  curative  inoculations 
against  diphtheria,  tuberculosis,  cholera,  the  bubonic  plague  and  other 
pestilences.  The  filtering  of  water,  the  disinfection  of  clothing  and 
houses,  the  sterilization  of  milk  and  other  foods,  the  marvelous  researches 
into  the  origin  and  propagation  of  malaria  through  mosquitoes,  the  dis- 
covery of  an  antidote  for  snake  poison,  even  for  the  cobra's  bite,  and 
indeed  innumerable  other  triumphs  of  scientific  medicine  and  surgery,  are 
all  tributes  to  the  incomparable  genius  of  this  illustrious  and  sainted 
benefactor  of  the  race. 

NECROLOGY. 

The  death  roll  of  these  years  included  these  names  : 

In  1881  Thomas  Carlyle,  Lord  Beaconsfield,  Mariette,  the  French 
Egyptologist,  and  Littre,  the  French  lexicographer. 

In  1882  J.  H.  Draper,  one  of  America's  greatest  scientists,  Long- 
fellow, Darwin,  Emerson,  Garibaldi,  Louis  Blanc,  the  French  Socialist, 
and  Anthony  Trollope,  one  of  the  favorite  English  novelists  of  his  age. 

In  1883  Wagner,  the  musician  ;  Dore,  the  artist;  J.  R.  Green,  the 
English  historian  ;  Gortchakoff,  the  Russian  statesman  ;  Karl  Marx,  the 
Socialist ;  Abd-el-Kader,  the  Algerian  chieftain  ;  Turguneeff,  Russia's 
greatest  literary  genius  ;  Mayne  Reid,  the  favorite  story  teller  of  the  boys 
of  the  world;  and  Henri  Martin,  the  French  historian. 

In  1884  Mignet,  the  historian;  Makart,  the  painter;  and  Charles 
Reade,  one  of  the  greatest  novelists  in  English  literature. 


CHAPTER  XL VI. 


Grover  Cleveland  becomes  President  of  the  United  States — The  Navy 
Rock  Springs  Massacre —The   Presidential  Succession — The  Chic- 
ago Anarchists — Interstate  Commerce — Presidential  Campaign. 


GROVER  CLEVELAND,  of  New  York,  became  President  of 
the  United  States  on  March  4,  1885,  ^"*^  ^^'^^  '^he  first  Democrat 
to  hold  that  office  since  the  retirement  of  James  Buchanan  in 
1 86 1.  His  administration  marlced  something  lilce  apolitical  rev- 
olution, and  also  the  beginning  of  a  new  era  in  United  States  politics. 

One  of  the  first  noteworthy  acts  of  the  new  administration  was  to 
send  a  detachment  of  United  States  troops  to  Panama,  to  enforce  the 
treaty  right  of  undisturbed  transit  across  the  isthmus,  which  was  inter- 
fered with  by  one  of  the  rebellions  so  common  in  that  country.  On 
April  24,  1885,  500  United  States  troops  entered  Panama,  protected 
American  property,  and  arrested  Aizpuru,  the  leader  of  the  insurgents. 

THE  NAVY. 

A  decided  change  was  effected  in  the  work  of  rebuilding  the  navy. 
On  July  19,  1885,  payments  were  suspended  on  the  contracts  which  had 
been  made  for  the  building  of  ships,  on  the  ground  that  the  work  was 
not  being  properly  done,  and  an  investigation  was  ordered  by  the  Gov- 
ernment into  the  work  of  John  Roach,  the  contractor  in  question,  who 
then  ranked  as  the  foremost  American  shipbuilder.  The  net  result  of  the 
investigation  was  a  complete  vindication  of  Mr.  Roach.  But  the  inter-' 
ruption  of  his  business  and  the  cancellation  of  the  contracts  drove  Mr. 
Roach  into  bankruptcy,  and  the  imputations  made  against  his  integrity 
so  preyed  upon  his  mind  as  to  impair  his  health  and  send  him  to  an  un- 
timely grave. 

Despite  these  regrettable  incidents,  the  work  of  rebuilding  the  navy 
was  vigorously  pressed  by  the  Cleveland  administration.  New  ships 
were  built,  by  contract  and  in  the  national  navy  yards,  and  year  by  year 
the  navy  advanced  toward  a  leading  place  among  the  navies  of  the  world. 

573 


574  STORY    OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

ROCK   SPRINGS   MASSACRE. 

A  hideous  incident  occurred  on  September  2,  1885,  at  Rock  Springs, 
Wyoming.  Many  miners  liad  there  gone  upon  strike,  owing  to  a  dis- 
pute with  their  employers,  and  Chinese  laborers  were  brought  thither 
from  California  to  take  their  places.  At  a  preconcerted  signal  the  strik- 
ing miners  turned  against  the  innocent  Chinese  with  incredible  fury. 
They  not  only  murdered  them,  openly  and  wantonly,  but  did  so  with 
most  revolting  tortures,  such  as  skinning  alive,  burning  at  the  stake,  and 
the  like.  Never  in  the  history  of  Indian  massacres  or  of  Chinese  out- 
breaks against  missionaries,  was  there  a  more  fiendish  performance. 
More  than  fifty  Chinamen,  whose  only  offence  was  that  they  were  hon- 
estly working  for  a  living,  were  thus  put  to  death,  and  all  the  rest  saved 
their  lives  only  by  precipitate  flight. 

The  United  States  Government  was  called  sharply  to  account  by 
China  for  this  hideous  outrage,  and  was  compelled  to  pay  a  hand- 
some indemnity  in  cash. 

THE   PRE:SIDENTIAL  SUCCESSION. 

The  nation  was  saddened  on  November  25,  1885,  by  the  death  of  Vice- 
President  Hendricks.  This  event  left  no  one  in  the  line  of  Presidential 
succession,  as  at  that  time  there  was  no  president  pro  tern,  of  the  Senate, 
and  no  speaker  of  tne  House  of  Representatives.  The  result  was  that 
as  soon  as  Congress  assembled  a  bill  was  framed  and  enacted,  providing 
that  in  case  of  the  removal,  death,  resignation  or  disability  of  both  the 
President  and  the  Vice-President,  the  line  of  succession  tethe  Presidency 
shall  be  vested  in  the  Cabinet  in  the  following  order:  Secretary  of 
State,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  Secretary  of  War,  Attorney-General, 
Postmaster-General,  .Secretary  of  the  Navy,  and  Secretary  of  the  Interior. 

THE  CHICAGO  ANARCHISTS. 

Worse  than  any  mere  labor  troubles  was  the  outbreak  of  Anarchism 
which  occurred  in  Chicago  in  1886.  That  city  had  long  been  the  head- 
quarters of  certain  discontented  and  semi-criminal  organizations,  com- 
posed chiefly  of  foreigners  of  recent  importation.  On  May  4th,  at  a 
public  meeting  in  Haymarket  Square,  a  collision  occurred  between  the 
"  Militant  Anarchists  "  and  the  police.  Some  dynamite  bombs  were 
thrown  by  the  Anarchists  as  a  part  of  a  preconcerted  scheme,  and  a 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  575 

number  of  policemen  and  others  were  killed  and  wounded.  Three 
months  later  seven  of  the  Anarchist  leaders  were  convicted  of  murder 
and  sentenced  to  death,  and  one  was  sentenced  to  fifteen  years' 
Imprisonment. 

INTERSTATE  COMMERCE. 

The  early  part  of  1887  was  marked  with  some  important  legislation. 
On  February  3d  the  second  Monday  in  January  was  fixed  as  the  date  on 
which  Presidental  Electors  should  meet  in  the  various  States  to  cast 
their  votes  for  President  and  Vice-President,  and  the  second  Wednesday 
in  February  was  fixed  as  the  date  on  which  the  votes  should  be  can- 
vassed by  Congress. 

On  February  4th  the  Interstate  Commerce  Bill,  for  regulation  of 
commerce  among  the  States  by  a  Federal  Commission,  was  approved  and 
became  a  law.  The  first  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  was  appointed 
by  the  President  on  March  22,  1887. 

During  this  administration  a  treaty  with  Great  Britain  for  the  regula- 
tion of  fisheries  was  negotiated,  but  the  Senate  declined  to  ratify  it,  and 
the  fisheries  question  continued  to  be  a  source  of  vexation  between  the 
United  States  and  Canada.  A  new  Cabinet  office  was  created,  known  as 
the  Secretaryship  of  Agriculture.  A  Department  of  Labor,  in  charge  of 
a  Commissioner,  was  also  established.  An  interesting  episode  in  foreign 
relations  was  the  reception  of  the  first  Minister  from  Persia  to  this 
country. 

PRESIDENTIAL  CAMPAIGN. 

The  Presidential  campaign  of  1888  was  one  of  the  most  exciting  in 
the  history  of  the  nation.  Many  candidates  were  in  the  field.  The 
Democrats  re-nominated  Mr.  Cleveland,  with  Senator  Thurman,  of  Ohio, 
as  candidate  for  the  Vice-Presidency.  The  Republicans  nominated 
Senator  Benjamin  Harrison,  of  Indiana,  for  President,  and  Levi  P. 
Morton,  of  New  York,  for  Vice-President.  Tickets  were  also  put  in 
the  field  by  the  Equal  Rights  (Woman  Suffrage),  Union  Labor,  United 
Labor,  Prohibitionist  and  other  parties. 

The  election  resulted  in  the  casting  of  a  plurality  of  popular  votes 
for  Cleveland  and  Thurman,  but  a  majority  of  the  electoral  votes  for 
Harrison  and  Morton — 233  to  168 — and  the  latter  were  accordingly 
elected. 


CHAPTER  XLVII. 


Russian  Advance  Toward   Herat  —  Riel's    Rebellion  —  Home    Rule  —  The 

Queen's    Jubilee  —  Expulsion    of    French    Pretenders  —  Boulanger  — 

Death  of  the  German  Emperor — German  Affairs — In  Many  Lands. 


THE  steady  advance  of   Russia  in    Central  Asia  was  marked  in 
March,  1S85,  by  the  occupation  of  Zulficar  Pass,  leading  to  Herat, 
and  by  an  attack  upon  the  Afghans  at  Khusk.     This  was  regarded 
as  a  menace  to  the   British  Indian   Empire,  and  Great  Britain  ac- 
cordingly took  steps  to  meet  it.     After  some  negotiations  hostilities  were 
at  last  averted,  the  British  Government,  under  Mr.  Gladstone's  direction, 
conceding  to  Russia  almost  everything  claimed  by  the  latter  in  that  part 

of  the  world. 

RIEL'S   REBELLION. 

The  goodwill  and  the  fairness  of  the  American  people  were  tested 
during  the  painful  trial  to  which  Canada  was  exposed  in  the  spring  of 
1885,  when  Louis  Riel — the  pardoned  author  of  the  Red  River  rebellion, 
in  suppressing  which  Lord  Wolseley  won  his  spurs — raised  the  half- 
breeds  and  the  Indians  in  the  North-west  Territory  against  the  Govern- 
ment. The  unfortunate  settlers,  who  were  unable  to  escape  in  the 
rigorous  winter  weather,  were  given  over  to  rapine,  outrage  and  mas- 
sacre. The  Dominion  Ministry  acted  with  promptitude  and  energy,  and 
a  considerable  force  was  collected  beyond  Winnipeg  under  General  Mid- 
dleton,  but  operations  were  delayed  by  the  snow  and  the  spring  floods, 
and  Riel,  with  his  savage  allies,  seemed  confident  that  the  troops  would 
be  worn  out  and  cut  off  in  detail.  General  Middleton,  however,  was 
steadily  successful ;  Riel  and  his  half-breeds  and  desperate  refugees  from 
the  States  were  beaten  and  finally  captured,  and  the  insurgent  Indian 
chiefs  submitted  or  were   hunted  down. 

HOME  RULE. 

Mr.  Gladstone  resigned  office  and  was  succeeded  by  Lord  Salisbury, 
as  Prime   Minister  of  England,  in  June,  1885.     A  general  election  soon 

576 


STORY    OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS.  577 

followed,  in  which  the  Liberals  were  successful,  and  in  January,  1886. 
Mr.  Gladstone  was  again  Prime  Minister.  The  one  great  issue  in  British 
politics  was  at  this  time  the  Irish  question,  which  Mr.  Gladstone  deter- 
mined to  settle  by  giving  Ireland  practical  independence  under  the  guise 
of  "  Home  Rule." 

Since  the  days  immediately  preceding  the  Reform  Bill  of  1832,  the 
United  Kingdom  had  never  been  in  such  a  state  of  political  excitement 
as  prevailed  from  November,  18S5,  to  July,  1886.  It  was  in  the  former 
month  that  rumors  begfan  to  sjet  abroad  that  the  "liberal  measure  of 
local  self-government,"  which  Gladstone  had  spoken  of  in  his  Midlothian 
speeches  as  desirable  for  Ireland,  meant  Home  Rule. 

At  midwinter  it  was  stated  that  he  had  invited  Parnell  to  confer  with 
him  on  the  scheme,  and  to  suggest  guarantees  for  the  preservation  of 
law  and  peace  in  Ireland  when  Home  Rule  should  have  been  conceded. 
Nevertheless,  several  of  their  party  leaders  announced  that  they  still  re- 
mained opposed  to  any  grant  of  legislative  independence  to  Ireland. 

THE  QUEEN'S  JUBILEE. 

The  year  1887  is  best  remembered  in  Great  Britain,  however,  for 
no  matter  of  party  politics,  but  for  the  Queen's  First  Jubilee  (June  21). 
a  great  ceremony  held  to  commemorate  Her  Majesty's  completion  of  the 
fiftieth  year  of  her  reign.  A  solemn  service  held  at  Westminster  Abbey  , 
was  attended  by  all  the  royal  family,  and  witnessed  by  an  assembly  gath- 
ered not  only  from  the  United  Kingdom,  but  from  India  and  all  the 
colonies.  Lord  Beaconsfield's  "Imperialism"  still  dominated  his  party, 
and  everything  was  done  to  make  the  Jubilee  a  manifestation  of  the 
loyalty  of  the  whole  empire.  In  this  aspect  it  was  most  successful.  Not 
only  did  the  premiers  of  the  autonomous  colonies  and  a  party  of  Indian 
rajahs  join  in  the  ceremony  in  London,  but  rejoicirtgs  and  demonstrations 
all  around  the  world  bore  witness  to  the  respect  and  love  entertained  for 
the  aged  sovereign  in  every  corner  of  her  dominions. 

EXPULSION  OF  FRENCH  PRETENDERS. 

French  politics  were  much  disturbed  in  1885  by  discussions  over  the 
campaign  in  Tonquin.  General  Boulanger,  an  ambitious  and  unscrupu- 
lous officer  of  the  army,  began  to  make  himself  conspicuous  as  Minister 
of  War.  by  his  persecution  of  officers  who  did  not  agree  with  him  in 


578  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

politics.  Rumors  of  intrigues  for  a  royalist  restoration  arose,  sedulously 
fostered  by  Boulanger  among  the  Radicals,  and  at  last  the  expulsion 
from  France  of  the  Bourbon  princes  was  demanded.  For  a  time  the 
Government  resisted  this  unjust  and  absurd  demand,  but  was  at  last 
forced  to  yield  to  it. 

BOULANGER. 

It  may  be  added  at  this  point  that  Boulanger  soon  began  himself  to 
plot  against  the  republic,  and  to  intrigue  with  the  expelled  princes  for 
their  restoration.  So  flagrant  did  his  treason  become  that  he  deemed  it 
prudent  to  flee  from  the  country.  He  was  tried  by  the  Senate  and  con- 
demned, but,  being  out  of  France,  could  not  be  reached.  He  remained 
in  exile,  engaged  in  vain  intrigues  and  conspiracies,  until  his  death. 

DEATH  OF  THE  GERMAN  EMPEROR. 

Attention  was  soon  diverted  from  these  controversies  by  the  fatal 
illness  of  the  German  Emperor,  William  I,  and  the  alarming  reports  of 
the  health  of  his  son,  who  was  at  San  Remo  when  his  father  died,  on 
March  9,  1888.  Though  the  Emperor  William  had  reached  a  patriarchal 
age,  his  death  was  deeply  felt  by  the  German  people.  The  funeral  cere- 
mony was  carried  out  with  an  impressive  magnificence  never  surpassed. 
The  wildest  hopes  and  fears  were  excited  in  France  and  elsewhere  by  the 
accession  of  the  Emperor  Frederick,  in  whose  state  a  temporary  im- 
provement was  visible  after  his  arrival  in  Berlin.  That  his  views  in  do- 
mestic policy  were  much  more  liberal  than  those  of  his  father,  and  that 
he  was  sincerely  desirous  of  peace  became  soon  apparent,  and  a  certain 
amount  of  friction  arose  between  him  and  the  Chancellor,  threatening  to 
end  at  one  time  in  the  resignation  of  the  latter,  who  opposed  the  pro- 
jected marriage  between  the  Princess  Victoria  and  Prince  Alexander,  the 
former  ruler  of  Bulgaria.  In  these  controversies  the  Crown  Prince,  who 
had  now  become  the  Emperor,  William  II,  ranged  himself  apparently  on 
the  side  of  the  Chancellor.  The  death  of  Emperor  Frederick  the  Noble 
produced  on  June  16th  unfeigned  and  disinterested  grief,  not  only  in 
Germany,  but  throughout  Europe,  and  especially  in  Great  Britain,  which 
was  the  highest  tribute  to  a  lofty  character  and  a  noble  life.  The  new 
Emperor  in  his  earliest  proclamations  and  speeches  reproduced  the  spirit 
and  the  language  of  his  grandfather,  with  a  less  pacific  temper  and  a 
more  outspoken  dislike  of  German  liberalism. 


STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED   YEARS.  579 

GERMAN   AFFAIRS. 

We  need  only  notice  in  passing  the  painful  and  not  very  creditable 
squabbles  which  arose  out  of  the  illness  of  the  Emperor  Frederick,  the 
charges  and  counter-charges  of  Sir  Morrell  Mackenzie  and  Professor  von 
Bergmann,  the  publication  of  the  late  Emperor's  diar)%  and  the  arrest 
and  prosecution  of  Dr.  Geffcken  for  alleged  complicity  in  that  offence. 
The  foreign  policy  of  the  German  Empire,  which  practically  governed 
that  of  Central  Europe,  underwent  no  change,  though  much  alarm  was 
caused  both  in  Austria-Hungary  and  in  France  by  the  visit  of  the  young 
Emperor  William  II,  soon  after  his  accession,  to  the  Czar  at  Peterhof 
The  German  semi-official  press  continued  to  write  contemptuously  and 
abusively  of  Bulgaria,  and  the  friendly  reladons  between  the  German  and 
the  Russian  courts  were  the  subject  of  various  comment.  It  soon  ap- 
peared, however,  that  the  "League  of  Peace,"  the  alliance  of  Germany 
with  Austria  and  Italy,  was  still  the  keystone  of  German  policy.  The 
visits  of  Signor  Crispi  and  Count  Kalnoky  to  Prince  Bismarck  were 
followed  by  the  more  formal  and  significant  progress  of  the  Emperor 
himself  to  Vienna  and  to  Rome,  where,  as  also  in  Sweden  and  in  the 
South  German  capitals,  he  was  welcomed  with  great  enthusiasm.  The 
solidarity'  of  the  interests  of  the  three  Powers  constituting  the  "League 
of  Peace  "  was  emphatically  asserted  in  these  interchanges  of  courtesy. 
An  interview  between  the  Emperor  and  the  Pope  at  the  Vatican  was  mal- 
adroitly  managed,  either  on  one  side  or  on  both,  and  weakened  the  friendly 
feelings  which  had  grown  up  between  the  German  Government  and 
the  Roman  Catholic  church. 

IN    MANY    LANDS. 

Other  incidents  of  these  years  must  be  mentioned  in  brief  The 
last  weeks  of  1885  saw  the  final  conquest  of  Burmah  by  the  British, 
and  the  deposition  of  the  infamous  tyrant.  King  Theebaw.  That  same 
year  saw  the  creation,  by  international  agreement,  of  the  Free  State  of 
the  Congo,  under  the  rule  of  the  King  of  the  Belgians.  In  18S7 
Germany  made  peace  with  Rome  by  rescinding  the  laws  she  had  en- 
acted against  the  Roman  Catholic  ecclesiastical  organizations.  A  con- 
flict between  Germans  and  Americans  in  Samoa  called  attention  to  the 
dangerous  state  of  affairs  in  those  islands,  which  were  under  the  joint 
rule  of  Germany,  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States. 


CHAPTER  XL VIII. 


Completion   of  Canadian    Pacific    Railway — Earthquakes — Ship  Canals- 
Stanley    and    Cmin  —  A    Noteworthy    Expedition  —  Railroad    to 
I  Samarcand — Blowing    Up   Hell    Gate — Bartholdi's    Statue 

of    Liberty  — The    Great    Blizzard  —  Necrology. 


THE  union  of  the  Canadian  provinces  into  a  single  federal  com- 
monwealth resulted  in  a  marked  increase  of  prosperity.  Trade 
and  manufactures  grew  apace,  and  important  public  works  were 
undertaken.  Chief  among  the  latter  was  the  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway,  extending  across  the  continent,  from  tidewater  in  the  St. 
I^awrence  River  at  Montreal  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  at  Vancouver. 
This  great  work  was  aided  by  a  guaranteed  loan  of  ^i  2,500,000  from 
the  British  Government,  by  exemption  from  taxation,  and  numerous 
other  valuable  concessions.  It  was  opened  for  traffic  on  June  28,  1886. 
Its  length  from  Montreal  to  Vancouver  is  2906  miles.  It  now  possesses 
a  fine  line  of  steamships,  plying  from  Vancouver  to  China  and  Japan, 
and  is  a  strong  competitor  against  the  transcontinental  lines  of  the 
United  States. 

EARTHQUAKES. 

The  earthquake  season  of  1883,  1884  and  1885,  mentioned  in  a 
former  chapter,  was  continued  in  the  next  two  years  with  disastrous 
effect.  On  August  31,  1886,  a  great  shock  disturbed  a  large  part  of 
the  United  States.  The  city  of  Charleston,  S.  C,  suffered  most  severely, 
forty-one  lives  and  ;f5, 000,000  of  property  being  destroyed.  On  Feb- 
ruary 23,  1887,  the  Riviera  and  adjacent  parts  of  Southern  Europe  were 
shaken,  with  the  loss  of  fully  2000  lives. 

SHIP  CANALS. 

The  great  ship  canal  in  Germany,  connecting  the  North  Sea  and 
the  Baltic,  was  begun  in  1887.  This  canal  extends  from  the  mouth  ot 
the  Elbe  to  Kiel,  a  distance  of  60  miles,  and  is  28  feet  deep  and  167  feet 

580 


STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS.  58 1 

wide.  It  was  opened  in  1894  by  the  German  Emperor  in  person,  amid 
great  festivities,  in  which  ships  of  nearly  all  the  navies  of  the  world 
took  part. 

Even  more  notable  was  the  Manchester  Ship  Canal,  which  was 
begun  and  completed  in  the  same  years  as  the  German  canal  just  men- 
tioned. The  Manchester  canal  extends  inland  more  than  35  miles  from 
Liverpool,  and  makes  of  the  great  inland  manufacturing  city  a  seaport 
accessible  to  the  largest  steamships  from  all  parts  of  the  world. 

STANLEY   AND   EMIN. 

The  year  1887  was  marked  with  the  heroic  enterprise  of  Henry  M. 
Stanley  to  rescue  Emin  Bey,  in  the  Equatorial  Provinces  of  the  Egyptian 
Soudan. 

Emin  Bey,  or  Pacha,  as  he  became,  was  Austrian  by  birth  He 
was  educated  as  a  physician,  and  was  one  of  Midhat's  advisers  at 
Constantinople.  When  that  Prime  Minister  was  dismissed  on  the  eve 
of  the  outbreak  of  the  Russo-Turkish  war  of  1877,  Emin  took  refuge 
in  Asia,  and  finally  made  his  way,  by  way  of  Suakim,  with  a  caravan, 
to  Khartoum,  where  he  arrived  in  ver)'  reduced  circumstances.  Gen- 
eral Gordon  made  him  a  storekeeper,  and  he  served  some  time 
at   Lado. 

After  1877  he  became  surgeon-in-chief  on  Gordon's  staff  serving 
about  four  years.  He  kept  busy  all  this  time,  attending  to  his  routine 
duties,  accumulating  scientific  collections,  writing  elaborate  papers  for 
European  societies  and  undertaking  delicate  missions  to  Uganda  and 
Unyoro.  He  was  an  expert  linguist — Turkish,  Arabic,  German,  French, 
Italian  and  Engrlish  being-  familiar  lantfuacres  to  him,  as  well  as  many  of 
the  African  dialects.  When  Gordon  became  Governor-General  ot  the 
Soudan  he  sent  Emin  to  rule  over  the  Equatorial  Provinces.  In  three 
years'  time  he  drove  out  the  slave-traders  from  a  populous  region,  and 
converted  a  deficiency  of  revenue  into  a  surplus.  He  conducted  the 
government  on  the  lines  marked  out  by  General  Gordon,  and  was 
equally  modest,  disinterested  and  conscientious.  When  the  Mahdi's 
rebellion  broke  out  a  Governor-General  of  another  stamp  was  at  Khar- 
toum. Emin's  warning  from  the  remote  south  passed  unheeded,  and 
disasters  followed,  ending  in  Gordon's  death.  Emin  remained  at  his 
post,  neglected  and  almost  forgotten.     He  had  4000   troops  at  the  out- 


582  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

set.  He  organized  auxiliary  forces  of  native  soldiers.  He  was  con- 
stantly engaged  in  warfare  with  surrounding  tribes.  His  ammunition 
and  money  ran  low,  and,  in  the  face  of  many  difficulties,  he  maintained 
his  position  and  governed  the  country  well.  The  last  European  who 
visited  him  before  Stanley's  arrival  was  Dr.  Junker,  who  parted  from 
him  at  Wadelai  on  January  i,  1886. 

A  NOTEWORTHY  EXPEDITION. 

Stanley  started  on  his  e.xpedition  to  relieve  Emin  early  in  1887,  but 
it  was  not  until  June  that  he  was  able  to  reach  the  Aruwimi.  His  jour- 
ney thence  to  Wadelai  was  a  gallant  struggle  against  seemingly  insu- 
perable obstacles,  and  it  was  not  until  sometime  in  January,  1888,  that  he 
succeeded  in  reaching  Emin.  He  found  Emin  and  his  party  in  a  fairly 
good  position  and  determined  to  resist  the  Mahdi's  demand  that  he  evac- 
uate the  provinces.  Stanley  about  the  middle  of  April  left  Wadelai  to 
return  to  his  rear  guard,  from  which  he  had  had  no  news,  and  he  urged 
Emin  to  accompany  him.  The  latter  would  not  leave,  however,  so  long 
as  the  country  was  threatened  by  the  Mahdi.  Soon  after  Stanley's  re- 
turn to  the  Aruwimi  in  August,  1888,  he  again  made  preparations  for  re- 
joining Emin,  and  in  18S9  they  marched  out  together,  by  the  way  of 
Zanzibar. 

The  time  occupied  in  this  expedition  was  three  years,  and  the  re- 
sults accomplished  were  of  great  value  to  the  science  of  geography. 
Stanley  ended  the  expedition  at  Cairo  in  the  latter  part  of  the  year  1889, 
and  he  remained  in  that  place  writing  a  record  of  the  journey,  which  was 
published  simultaneously  in  England,  France,  Germany  and  this  country 
in  1890  under  the  title  "In  Darkest  Africa."  His  return  to  England  at 
the  conclusion  of  this  work  was  one  continuous  ovation.  Many  degrees 
were  conferred  upon  him  by  the  English  Universities  ;  and  individuals, 
big  and  little,  thronged  to  do  him  honor.  He  was  married  in  1890  to 
Miss  Dorothy  Tennant,  an  artist  of  considerable  talent,  of  London. 

RAILROAD  TO  SAMARCAND. 

The  progress  of  Russia's  conquest  of  Central  Asia  was  marked  in 
1 888  by  a  most  romantic  achievement.  This  was  the  completion  of  a 
railroad  from  the  Caspian  Sea  to  the  city  of  Samarcand,  and  the  making 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 


58j 


of  the  latter  city  a  great  railroad  centre.  Nothing  could  be  more  im- 
pressive to  the  romantic  imagination  than  the  thought  of  a  steam  railroad 
in  Samarcand,  "  the  gilded  city  of  the  sun,"  where  is  the  tomb  of  Tamer- 
lane. 

In  that  year  King  John  of  Abyssinia  was  killed  in  a  battle  with  the 
Dervishes,  and  Menelek  of  Shoa  seized  the  throne  as  his  successor. 
This  incident  was  the  beginning  of  a  new  era  in  the  history  of  Abyssinia, 
the   land  of  Prester  John. 

BLOWING    UP    HELL    GATE. 

The  first  blasting  operations  under  Hell  Gate,  in  the  East  River, 
New  York,  did  not  prove  altogether  successful,  and  another  great  blast 
was  prepared.  Nine  acres  of  submarine  rock  were  undermined,  and 
blown  up  by  a  single  explosion  of  nearly  283,000  pounds  of  dynamite 
and  gun  cotton,  on  October  10,  1885. 

On  November  10,  1885,  a  National  Farmers'  Congress  assembled 
at  Indianapolis,  Indiana,  and  took  steps  which  ultimately  led  to  the  organ- 
ization of  the  Populist  party  in  national  politics. 

BARTHOLDI'S   STATUE  OF  LIBERTY. 

The  colossal  statue  of  "Liberty  Enlightening  the  World,"  executed 
by  Bartholdi,  the  French  sculptor,  and  standing  on  Bedloe's  Island,  in 
New  York  harbor,  was  formally  unveiled  with  imposing  ceremonies  on 
October  28,  1886.  This  monumental  work  of  art  was  a  gift  of  the  people 
of  France  to  the  people  of  the  United  States.  Its  cost  was  more  than 
;^2oo,ooo,  which  was  raised  by  private  subscription  in  France.  The  cost 
of  the  pedestal  and  land  was  about  $300,000,  which  was  contributed  in 
the  United  States.  The  statue  is  15 1.2  feet  high,  and  weighs  440,000 
pounds.  From  low  water  mark  to  the  top  of  the  torch  is  305  feet  i  i 
inches. 

A  large  part  of  Table  Rock,  at  Niagara  Falls,  measuring  100  feet 
long,  76  feet  wide,  and  i  70  feet  deep,  broke  off  and  fell  into  the  abyss 
below  on  January  12,  1887. 

The  holiday  known  as  Labor  Day  was  first  observed  as  a  legal  holi- 
day in  New  York  State  on  September  5,  1887.  On  September  15th  a 
three  days'  centennial  celebration  of  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  of 
the  United  States  was  begun  at  Philadelphia. 


584  STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

TH£  GREAT  BLIZZARD. 

The  month  of  March,  1888,  was  made  memorable  in  New  York  and 
its  vicinity  by  the  unprecedented  snow  storm,  or  bhzzard,  which  raged 
there  on  the  12th  and  13th.  In  this  storm  the  temperature  fell  to  many 
degrees  below  zero,  the  wind  blew  a  fierce  hurricane,  and  more  than  four 
feet  of  snow  fell.  The  wind  drifted  this  snow  into  vast  piles,  so  that  in 
many  of  the  streets  in  New  York  it  lay  from  twenty  to  thirty  feet  deep. 
Railroads  were  entirely  blockaded,  telegraph  lines  were  prostrated,  and 
for  several  days,  business  and  communication  were  almost  entirely  sus- 
pended. Thirty  lives  were  lost,  besides  hundreds  more  that  were  ulti- 
mately lost  in  consequence  of  sufferings  during  the  storm,  and  more  than 
$10,000,000  worth  of  property  was  destroyed. 

NECROLOGY. 

The  deaths  of  these  four  years  included  in  1885  those  of  Victor 
Hugo,  General  Grant,  General  McClellan,  Marshal  Serrano,  of  Spain, 
and  Sir  Moses  Montefiore,  the  great  Hebrew  philanthropist,  of  Lon- 
don ;  in  1886,  ex-President  Anhur,  Liszt,  the  musician,  Beust,  the 
Austrian  statesman,  and  Charles  Francis  Adams,  the  American  states- 
man and  publicist;  in  1887,  Henry  Ward  Beecher  ;  and  in  1888,  Asa 
Gray,  the  botanist,  General  Sheridan,  Matthew  Arnold,  and  William 
H.  Vanderbilt. 


CHAPTER  XLIX. 


Benjamin   Harrison  becomes   President  of  the   United   States — Additions 

to  the   Union  —  Pan-American   Congress  —  Behring  Sea  —  The 

McKinley  Tariff  —  Controversies   with    Chili  —  Italian 

Massacre  in  New  Orleans — Farmers'  Alliance. 


BENJAMIN   HARRISON   became  President  of  the  United  States 
on  March  4,  1889.      He  was  a  man  of  more  than  ordinarily  dis- 
tinguished ancestry.     One  of  liis  progenitors  was  Major-General 
Thomas   Harrison,  mentioned    in    the  following   entry  made  by 
Samuel  Pepys  in  his  diarj^  under  date  of  October  13,  1660  : 

"  I  went  out  to  Charing  Cross  to  see  Major  General  Harrison  hanged, 
drawn  and  quartered  ;  which  was  done  there,  he  looking  as  cheerful  as 
any  man  could  do  in  that  condition.  He  was  presently  cut  down  and  his 
head  and  heart  shown  to  the  people,  at  which  there  were  great  shouts  of 
joy.  Thus  it  was  my  chance  to  see  the  King  beheaded  at  Whitehall,  and 
to  see  the  first  blood  shed  in  revenge  for  ihe  King  at  Charing  Cross." 
General  Harrison  had  been  appointed  by  Cromwell  to  convey  Charles  I 
from  Windsor  to  Whitehall  for  trial,  and  he  siijned  the  warrant  for  the 
beheading  of  the  King.  The  descendants  of  the  patriot  of  the  Com- 
monwealth came  to  America  soon  after  the  hangfino;  at  Charincr  Cross, 
but  the  family  did  not  come  prominently  into  view  until  just  before  the 
Revolutionary  war. 

Benjamin  Harrison's  great-grandfather,  Benjamin  Harrison,  of  Vir- 
ginia, was  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  and 
was  prominent  in  public  affairs  from  1764  until  his  death  in  1791,  being 
for  four  years  a  member  of  Congress  and  three  times  Governor  of  V'ir- 
ginia.  He  entered  upon  his  public  career  in  1764,  soon  after  reaching 
his  majorit)',  as  a  member  of  the  Virginia  House  of  Burgesses,  and  he 
took  an  active  part  in  the  pre-Revolutionary  movements.  General 
William  Henry  Harrison,  his  son,  served  his  country  almost  continuously 
from  I  791  to  1841,  both  in  military  and  ci\il  places.  He  fought  the  bat- 
tle of  Tippecanoe  in  1811,  was  a  member  of  Congress,  a  United  States 

585 


586  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

Senator  from  Ohio,  Minister  to  Republic  of  Colombia,  and  for  one 
month  (from  March  4  to  April  4,  1841,  when  he  died)  President  of  the 
United  States.  His  son,  John  Scott  Harrison,  who  was  a  member  of 
Congress  from  1S53  to  1857,  died  on  May  26,  1878,  at  his  home  near 
North  Bend,  Ohio.  The  third  son  of  John  Scott  Harrison  was  Benjamin 
Harrison,  who  became  President  in  1889. 

ADDITIONS  TO  THE  UNION. 

President  Harrison's  Administration  was  marked  with  the  admission 
of  a  number  of  new  States  to  the  Union.  North  and  South  Dakota 
were  thus  admitted,  the  tliirty-ninth  and  fortieth  in  order,  on  Novem- 
ber 2,  1889;  Montana,  the  forty-first,  followed  on  November  8th,  and 
Washington,  the  fortv-second,  on  November  iith.  Idaho  came  in  as 
the  forty-third  on  July  3,  1890,  and  Wyoming  as  the  forty-fourth  on  July 
loth.   Meantime  on  May  2,  1890,  Oklahoma  was  organized  as  a  territory, 

PAN-AMERICAN   CONGRESS. 

The  period  covered  by  the  four  years  of  General  Harrison's  Admin- 
istration was  marked  by  unusual  activity  and  striking  success  in  the  man- 
agement of  foreign  relations.  American  interests  were  vastly  promoted 
and  the  aims  of  American  diplomacy  emphasized.  The  record  of  the 
Administration  began  with  the  highly  important  and  significant  meeting 
of  the  International  American  Conference  in  Washington,  and  ended 
with  the  conclusion  of  the  Hawaiian  Treaty  of  Annexation.  The  Inter- 
national   American    Conference  assembled  in  Washington    in    October 

O 

1889,  with  delegates  representing  all  the  independent  Governments  of 
the  two  Americas,  and  continued  in  session  until  April,  1890.  While 
the  American  nations  were  discussing  plans  for  closer  intimacy,  another 
important  national  conference  was  being  held  for  the  better  protection 
of  lives  and  property  at  sea.  In  the  first  year  of  the  Administration 
negotiations  between  England,  Germany  and  the  United  States  for  the 
preservation  of  peace  and  good  government  in  the  Samoan  Islands, 
which  had  been  broken  off  in  1887,  were  renewed  with  more  success,  and 
a  convention,  signed  in  Berlin,  was  submitted  early  in  1890  and  ratified 
by  the  Senate.  A  treaty  of  extradition  with  Great  Britain,  w^hich  the  pre- 
ceding Administration  had  failed  to  secure,  was  also  negotiated  and  rati- 
fied  in  the  spring  of  1890. 


1900— AT  THE  BOTTOM  OF  THE  SEA 


\ 


TVP.'.U  Kl  ri.K    .MACHINH 


skwim;  machine; 


TEl.EGRAI  H    INSTRUMENT 


CKAMOl'HONE 


TYPESETTING    JIACHINE 


STATIONARY    ENGINE 


1900-KEMARKABLE  INVENTIONS  OF  THE  NINETEENTH    CENTURY 


STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 


BCHRING    SEA. 


589 


For  some  years  there  had  been  a  bitter  dispute  between  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain  concerning  the  right  to  take  fur  seals  in  Behrino^ 
Sea.  These  negotiations,  which  had  dragged  along  without  prospect  of 
termination  for  several  years,  were  taken  up  early  in  the  Administration 
by  Secretary  Blaine.  A  treaty  of  arbitration  was  signed  in  February, 
1892,  and  soon  after  ratified.  The  Board  of  Arbitrators  which  subse- 
quently met  in  Paris  and  the  award  made  by  it  are  subjects  which  more 
properly  belong  to  a  review  of  Mr.  Cleveland's  second  Administration. 
They  are  therefore  not  treated  in  greater  detail  here. 

THE    McKINLEY   TARIFF. 

The  famous  protective  tariff  framed  by  William  McKinley,  member 
of  Congress  from  Ohio,  and  called  by  his  name,  was  enacted  by  Con- 
gress in  1890,  and  approved  by  the  President  on  October  istof  that 
year.  Under  it  the  burden  was  thrown  upon  the  State  Department  of 
negotiating  a  series  of  treaties  of  commercial  reciprocity  with  Central 
and  South  American  countries.  The  first  convention  proclaimed  was 
that  with  Brazil  early  in  1891  ;  a  second  was  negotiated  in  the  same 
year  with  Spain  for  her  West  India  possessions,  and  a  third  with  the 
Republic  of  San  Domingo.  Similar  conventions  were  subsequently 
proclaimed  with  Guatemala,  Salvador,  Great  Britain  for  certain  of  her 
West  India  colonies,  and  British  Guiana,  Nicaragua  and  Honduras. 
With  the  sugar  clause  as  a  basis,  limited  reciprocity  conventions  were 
also  arranged  with  Germany  and  Austria-Hungary. 

CONTROVERSIES   WITH   CHILI. 

Events  growing  out  of  the  civil  war  in  Chili  threatened,  in  the 
winter  of  1891-92,  to  involve  this  countrjMn  war  with  the  triumphant 
Congressional  party  in  that  republic,  but  the  firm  and  vigorous  asser- 
tions of  this  country's  purpose  to  maintain  its  dignity  and  enforce  its 
rights  brought  the  Chilian  Government  to  a  speedy  sense  of  responsi- 
bility, and  the  injuries  of  which  the  United  States  complained  were 
redressed  without  question.  A  party  ot  sailors  from  the  cruiser  "  Balti- 
more "  had  been  attacked  by  a  mob  in  Valparaiso  and  loss  of  life  had 
resulted.  General  Harrison's  Administration  secured  an  apology  for 
this  insult  to  the  American  uniform,  and  an  indemnity  of  $75,000  for  the 


59°  STORY   OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

families  of  the  dead  sailors  and  for  the  injured.  An  incident  of  these 
troubles  with  Chili  was  the  flight  of  the  Chilian  insurgent  steamer 
"Itata"  from  a  Californian  port,  carrying  with  her  as  prisoner  a  United 
States  Deputy  Marshal  who  had  tried  to  prevent  her  sailing,  The 
"Itata"  was  afterwards  seized,  after  a  long  chase,  at  Callao,  Peru. 

ITALIAN  MASSACRE  IN  NEW  ORLEANS. 

In  the  winter  of  1890-91  several  Italian  subjects  were  killed  in  an 
uprising  in  New  Orleans  against  a  secret  organization  of  assassins, 
known  as  the  Mafia.  For  a  time  diplomatic  intercourse  between  the 
United  States  and  Italy  ceased  as  a  result  of  this  incident.  An  investi- 
gation showed  that  some  of  the  men  killed  by  the  mob  were  Italian 
subjects,  and  the  United  States  subsequently  paid  a  voluntary  indemnity 
of  $25,000.  The  sum  was  accepted  by  Italy  as  a  most  generous  com- 
pensation, and  cordial  diplomatic  relations  were  restored. 

Toward  the  close  of  General  Harrison's  Administration  an  im- 
portant extradition  treaty  with  France,  negotiated  by  the  Hon.  White- 
law  Reid,  was  ratified  by  the  Senate,  as  were  similar  treaties  with  Russia 
and  Sweden. 

FARMERS'   ALLIANCE. 

The  organization  known  as  the  Farmers'  Alliance  arose  to  great 
strength  during  this  administration,  and  decided  to  take  part  in  politics. 
At  a  National  Industrial  Conference  held  at  St.  Louis  on  February  22, 
1892,  the  Farmers'  Alliance  and  other  bodies  decided  to  act  with  the 
newly  formed  People's  Party,  or  Populists,  in  that  year's  campaign.  The 
latter  party  held  its  national  convention  at  Omaha  in  July,  and  nominated 
General  James  B.  Weaver  for  President  and  James  G.  Field  for  Vice- 
President.  The  Democrats  nominated  Grover  Cleveland  for  President 
and  Adlai  E.  Stevenson  of  Illinois,  for  Vice-President.  The  Republicans 
nominated  President  Harrison  to  succeed  himself,  with  Whitelaw  Reid, 
of  New  York,  as  candidate  for  Vice-President. 

The  campaign  was  vigorously  contested.  Vast  labor  strikes  un- 
settled industrial  conditions  and  produced  discontent  with  the  existing 
Administration,  and  the  People's  Party  drew  off  many  Republican  votes. 
The  result  was  the  election  of  Cleveland  and  Stevenson,  who  got  277 
electoral  votes.  Harrison  and  Reid  got  145  votes,  and  Weaver  and 
Field  got  22  votes. 


CHAPTER  L. 


Boulanger    Trial  —  German    Affairs  —  Resignation   of    Bismarck  —  African 

Treaty — Triple   Alliance — Revolution   in   Brazil — War  in 

Chili  —  The    Japanese    Constitution. 


IT  was  early  in  1889,  as  hitherto  related,  that  the  French  Senate  tried 
and  condemned  Boulanger  for  his  treasonable   conspiracies  against 
the    republic.     The  immediate  danger  of  "  Boulangism  "    was  thus 
averted,  but  French  politics  remained  for  some  time   in  a  troubled 
condition.     Ministry  after  Ministry  was  formed  and  put  into  office,  only 
to  be  defeated  and  forced  to  resign  by  adverse  votes  in  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies. 

At  last,  in  1S92,  came  a  crisis  that  shook  the  Republic  to  its  founda- 
tions. It  was  discovered  that  of  the  $300,000,000  which  French  investors 
had  been  persuaded  to  put  into  the  scheme  of  constructing  a  canal  at 
Panama,  more  than  half  had  been  stolen  or  used  in  bribing  and  corrupt- 
ing or  in  paying  blackmail  to  public  men  in  France.  It  was  one  of  the 
greatest  financial  scandals  in  the  history  of  the  world.  Many  of  the  fore- 
most men  in  France  were  compromised,  including  De  Lesseps  himself, 
and  were  brought  to  trial  and  severely  punished. 

GERMAN    AFFAIRS. 

The  German  Reichstag  passed  a  law  in  1889  providing  compulsory 
insurance  of  workingmen  against  disability  arising  from  old  age  or 
infirmity.  A  conference  was  held  at  Berlin  in  the  same  year,  between 
Germany,  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States,  for  the  adjustment  of 
their  respective  interests  in  Samoa,  which  resulted  in  a  modus  vivendi 
which  lasted  until  almost  the  end  of  the  century,  when  Samoa  was 
partitioned  among  the  powers. 

An  international  conference  on  labor  was  held  at  Berlin  in  1890,  at 
the  instance  of  the  Emperor,  with  the  ambitious  aim  of  settling  once  and 
forever  the  conflict  between  labor  and  capital.  It  was,  however, 
productive  of  little  good. 

591 


592  STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

RESIGNATION  OF  BISMARCK. 

The  world  was  startled  in  March,  1890,  by  the  announcement  that 
Prince  Bismarck,  the  real  creator  of  the  German  Empire,  had  resigned 
the  Chancellorship  of  that  empire  and  retired  to  private  life.  Rumors  of 
disagreements  between  him  and  the  young  Emperor  had  been  heard,  but 
it  was  not  supposed  that  they  would  come  to  an  open  rupture.  It 
appeared,  however,  that  on  a  direct  issue  between  the  two,  the  Emperor 
had  practically  told  the  venerable  Chancellor  to  submit  or  resign,  and 
Bismarck  had  chosen  the  latter  course. 

General  Caprivi  was  appointed  Chancellor  in  Bismarck's  place,  but 
was  a  mere  figurehead.  The  young  Emperor  was  thenceforth  his  own 
Chancellor.  Indeed,  the  most  remarkable  factor  in  German  politics  was 
the  energy  with  which  the  young  Emperor  impressed  his  personality  on 
his  own  subjects  and  on  all  Europe.  His  almost  restless  activity  was 
displayed  in  the  frequent  interchange  of  visits  with  other  sovereigns.  He 
went  to  England  in  the  summer,  and  was  much  impressed  by  the  naval 
review  at  Spithead.  In  Berlin  he  entertained  the  Emperor  of  Austria 
and  the  Kings  of  Italy,  Sweden  and  Denmark,  and,  finally,  after  delays 
which  gave  rise  to  much  gossip,  the  Czar.  In  the  autumn  he  went  to 
Athens,  taking  Italy  on  his  way,  in  order  to  be  present  at  the  marriage 
of  his  sister,  the  Princess  Sophia,  to  the  Duke  of  Sparta,  the  heir  to  the 
throne  of  Greece,  and  thence  proceeded  to  Constantinople,  where  he  met 
with  a  splendid  welcome  from  the  Sultan. 

AFRICAN  TREATY. 

The  German  and  British  Governments  agreed  upon  a  treaty  in  1 890, 
by  which  they  divided  the  bulk  of  South  Africa  between  them.  Germany's 
title  was  confirmed  to  the  vast  colonies  she  had  founded,  or  rather  to  the 
vast  territories  she  had  seized  for  colonization,  and  a  British  protectorate 
was  established  over  Zanzibar.  The  little  island  of  Heligoland,  in  the 
North  Sea,  was  ceded  by  Great  Britain  to  Germany. 

In  the  same  year  Belgium  and  the  Congo  Free  State  concluded  a 
treaty,  under  the  terms  of  which  the  latter  was  to  be  annexed  to  the 
former  at  thp  end  of  ten  years. 

The  march  of  Stanley  and  Emin  Pacha  from  the  Egyptian  Soudan 
to  the  coast  at  Zanzibar  has  already  been  mentioned.  That  incident  left 
the  entire  Soudan  to  the  mercy  of  the  fanatical   Mahdists,  and  a  reign  of 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  593 

terror  and  outrage  was  established  there  such  as  the  world  had  not  seen 
before  since  the  days  of  Genghis  Khan, 

TRIPLE  ALLIANCE. 

The  Triple  Alliance  of  Germany,  Austria-Hungary  and  Italy  was 
renewed  in  1891,  and  thus  the  international  politics  of  Europe  were  kept 
in  the  same  channels.  Meantime,  in  the  Balkans,  King  Milan,  who  had 
skillfully  played  off  the  Servian  parties  against  one  another  and  kept  a 
firm  hold  on  the  Austrian  alliance,  suddenly  threw  up  the  game  early  in 
the  year  1889,  abdicating  in  favor  of  his  son  Alexander,  a  lad  of  thirteen, 
who  was  quietly  installed  as  sovereign  under  a  Council  of  Regents.  The 
pro-Russian  party  was  from  the  outset  dominant  in  the  Regency  and  the 
Assembly  ;  Queen  Natalie,  Milan's  divorced  wife,  was  allowed  to  return 
to  Belgrade,  and  a  policy  of  ostentatious  hostility  towards  Austria  was 
adopted. 

REVOLUTION  IN  BRAZIL. 

A  sudden  military  uprising  occurred  in  Brazil  on  November  15,  1889, 
under  the  lead  of  Marshal  Deodoro  da  Fonseca.  It  was  at  first  supposed 
to  be  aimed  merely  at  some  abuses  of  Government,  but  was  soon  seen  to 
be  hostile  to  the  empire  itself  Its  success  was  rapid.  The  venerable 
Emperor,  Dom  Pedro  II,  one  of  the  most  benevolent  of  rulers,  was  com- 
pelled to  abdictate  and  to  retire  to  Portugal  A  republic  was  thereupon 
proclaimed  under  the  title  of  the  United  States  of  Brazil.  Marshal 
Fonseca  was  made  the  head  of  the  provisional  government. 

In  February,  1891,  the  new  Brazilian  Constitution  was  promulgated, 
and  Marshal  Fonseca  was  elected  President  under  it.  In  November  of 
the  same  year  he  attempted  to  usurp  dictatorial  power,  and  the  result 
was  a  counter-revolution  ao-ainst  him,  which  beg^an  in  the  State  of  Rio 
Grande  do  Sul  and  soon  involved  Rio  de  Janeiro.  Fonseca  was  forced 
to  resign,  and  the  Vice-President,  Peixoto,  assumed  the  Presidential 
office. 

A  revolution  occurred  also  in  1890  in  the  Argentine  Republic. 
President  Celman  was  driven  from  office,  and  was  succeeded  by  President 
Pelligrini. 

WAR   IN   CHILI. 

A  civil  war  was  the  feature  of  1891  in  Chili.  For  some  time  Presi- 
dent Balmaceda  had  been  at  loggerheads  with  Congress.      The  quarrel 


594  STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED   YEARS. 

came  to  a  crisis  when  Balmaceda  tried  to  usurp  dictatorial  power.  The 
Congressional  party  rose  against  him,  gaining  possession  of  most  of  the 
navy.  After  a  number  of  severe  encounters  the  Congressional  party  was 
victorious.  In  August  the  Congressional  army  captured  Valparaiso  and 
Santiago,  and  a  little  later  Balmaceda  committed  suicide.  In  October 
Jorge  Montt  was  chosen  President. 

THE  JAPANESE  CONSTITUTION. 

A  revolution  as  notable  as  any  of  these,  yet  entirely  peaceful,  was 
effected  in  1889  '"^  the  ancient  empire  of  Japan.  In  that  year  the 
Emperor,  or  Mikado,  voluntarily  gave  to  the  nation  a  free  Constitution, 
with  an  elective  Parliament  and  popular  suffrage.  In  a  word,  he  placed 
Japan  at  once  on  the  same  governmental  plane  with  the  most  enlightened 
nations  of  Europe.  The  experiment  worked  admirably,  and  the  Japanese 
nation  thereafter  made  rapid  progress  in  the  arts  of  government  and 
civilization. 

Still  another  revolution  occurred  in  January,  1893,  its  scene  being 
the  Hawaiian  Islands.  There  was  a  popular  uprising  against  the  mis- 
government  and  tyranny  of  Queen  Liliuokalani,  and  that  sovereign  was 
deposed.  The  Hawaiians  then  renewed  the  action  of  nearly  fifty  years 
before,  and  made  application  for  annexation  to  the  United  States.  A 
treaty  of  annexation  was  negotiated  in  February,  and  was  sent  by  Presi- 
dent Harrison  to  the  Senate  of  the  United  States.  It  was  not  acted  upon, 
however,  before  the  end  of  his  term,  and  his  successor  promptly  withdrew 
it  from  consideration. 

The  beginning  of  1893  was  marked  with  the  French  war  of  conquest 
against  Siam,  which  resulted  in  the  seizure  by  France  of  about  one-third 
of  that  kingdom. 


CHAPTER  LI. 


Great  Storm  and  Disaster  at  Samoa — The  Johnstown  Flood — The  Wash- 
ington Centenary — The   Nicaragua  Canal — Various   Achieve- 
ments—  Peary    in    Greenland  —  The    Columbian 
Celebration — The   Death   List- 


IN  reviewing  the  general  events  of  tlie  world  during  the  four  years  of 
President  Harrison's  Administration  in  the  United  States,  there 
comes  first  to  mind  the  awful  tragedy  of  Apia.  On  March  15-16, 
1889,  a  tremendous  hurricane  broke  upon  the  Samoan  Islands.  In 
the  harbor  of  Apia  was  a  fleet  of  American,  German  and  British  ves- 
sels. The  three  German  ships  were  driven  upon  the  reefs  and  shore, 
and  wrecked,  with  the  loss  of  96  lives.  The  three  American  ships  were 
also  wrecked,  with  a  loss  of  50  lives.  The  one  British  ship,  the  "  Cal- 
liope," was  saved  by  the  courage  of  her  captain  and  the  power  of  her 
engines,  for,  instead  of  trusting  to  her  anchors  and  trying  to  hold  her 
place  in  the  storm-s\vept  harbor,  she  cast  off  her  cables,  and  in  the  very 
face  of  the  storm,  fought  her  way  past  the  rocks,  through  the  sea-gate  to 
the  open  sea,  where  she  rode  out  the  storm.  The  tragedy  was  illumi- 
nated by  unsurpassed  exhibitions  of  heroism.  The  crew  of  the  Ameri- 
can ship  "  Trenton,"  remaining  in  the  harbor  to  be  wrecked  and  lost, 
gallantly  cheered  the  "Calliope,"  as  that  ship  passed  by  her  way  on  to 
safety.  Then  they  gave  three  cheers  for  their  consort,  the  already 
wrecked  "  Vandalia,"  against  whose  helpless  hulk  they  w-ere  drifting. 
The  few  survivors  of  the  "  Vandalia's  "  crew,  clinging  to  the  wreck,  gave 
three  cheers  in  reply.  Then  the  crew  of  the  "Trenton"  raised  the 
Stars  and  Stripes  to  its  place  at  the  mizzen-peak,  and  the  band,  lashed  to 
the  rigging  to  keep  from  being  swept  off  by  the  waves,  played  "  The  Star 
Spangled  Banner."     And  thus  the  ship  went  down  in  wreck  and  death. 

THE  JOHNSTOWN  FLOOD. 

On  May  31st  occurred  the  destruction  of  Johnstown,  Pennsylvania, 
by  a  flood.     This  city,  with  some  28,000  population,  was  situated  on  the 

595 


596  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

Conemaugh  River,  in  Western  Pennsylvania.  About  eighteen  miles  fur- 
ther up  stream  the  river  had  long  ago  been  dammed,  so  as  to  form  a  lake. 
This  lake  was  21^  miles  long  and  i  i^  miles  wide,  and  its  level  was  275 
feet  above  the  city  of  Johnstown.  Heavy  spring  rains  swelled  the  river 
and  put  unusual  pressure  upon  the  dam,  which  gave  way,  and  the  huge 
mass  of  water  went  roaring  down  the  valley  and  struck  the  city  with  in- 
describable fury.  The  city  was  almost  annihilated.  Nearly  $10,000,000 
worth  of  property  was  destroyed.  The  number  of  lives  lost  was  2142. 
No  less  than  99  whole  families  were  blotted  out,  1 24  women  were  left 
widows,  and  695  children  were  orphaned.  Aid  was  sent  to  the  survivors 
from  all  the  States,  and  from  all  parts  of  the  world,  amounting  to  nearly 
$3,000,000.  Each  widow  received  $1500,  and  provision  was  made  for  the 
payment  of  $50  a  year  to  each  orphan  until  the  age  of  sixteen. 

THE  WASHINGTON  CENTENARY. 

The  one  hundredth  anniversary  of  the  inauguration  of  George 
Washington  as  first  President  of  the  United  States  occurred  on  April  30, 
1889.  That  day  was  set  apart  by  Presidential  proclamation  as  a  public 
holiday  in  all  parts  of  the  Union,  and  elaborate  celebrations  were  held  in 
many  places.  The  chief  celebration  was,  of  course,  in  New  York,  which 
city  had  been  the  scene  of  the  event  commemorated,  a  hundred  years 
before. 

THE    NICARAGUA    CANAL. 

One  of  the  most  important  engineering  schemes  of  these  years  was 
the  beginning  of  the  Nicaragua  canal.  Since  the  earliest  times  the  Nica- 
ragua route  had  been  regarded  with  great  favor  as  the  site  of  an 
isthmian  canal,  on  account  of  the  fine  San  Juan  River  and  the  vast  ex- 
panse of  Lake  Nicaragua,  which  forms  a  natural  waterway  nearly  across 
the  isthmus.  In  1825  DeWitt  Clinton,  the  builder  of  the  Erie  canal,  had 
obtained  a  concession  for  a  Nicaragua  canal,  but  failed  to  raise  the 
needed  capital.  Ten  years  later  the  United  States  Congress  passed  res- 
olutions in  favor  of  the  construction  of  the  canal.  In  1846  Louis  Napo- 
leon interested  himself  in  the  scheme,  and  in  1847  the  British  Govern- 
ment attempted  to  claim  control  over  any  such  waterway  that  might  be 
constructed.  Of  the  Clayton-Bulwer  treaty,  which  frustrated  such  claims, 
we  have  hitherto  spoken. 


STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED   YEARS.  597 

VARIOUS   ACHIEVEMENTS. 

The  year  1889  was  marked  with  another  international  exposition  in 
Paris,  which  was  brilliantly  successful.  A  feature  of  it  was  the  stu- 
pendous Eiffel  tower,  one  of  the  loftiest  structures  ever  raised  by  the 
hands  of  man. 

On  January  23,  1890,  the  Women's  Christian  Temperance  League 
was  organized  at  Cleveland,  Ohio.  This  is  not,  however,  to  be  con- 
founded with  the  National  Women's  Christian  Temperance  Union,  formed 
in  Ohio  in  November,  1874,  which  had  grown  to  enormous  proportions. 

The  completion  of  the  new  Croton  aqueduct  for  supplying  New 
York  City  with  water,  and  the  opening  of  the  new  railroad  bridge  across 
the  Firth  of  Forth,  in  Scotland,  were  two  of  the  major  engineering 
achievements  of  1890. 

In  1890,  also,  King  William  III  of  Holland  died  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  daughter,  Wilhelmina,  his  widow.  Queen  Emma  being  appointed 
Regent  until  Wilhelmina  should  attain  her  majority. 

In  1891  the  Russian  Government  began  the  construction  of  its  great 
railroad  across  Siberia,  from  the  Ural  Mountains  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
The  same  year  saw  the  prevalence  of  a  dreadful  famine  in  Russia, 
in  which  hundreds  of  thousands  of  people  perished. 

PEARY   IN    GREENLAND. 

The  departure  of  Lieutenant  Peary  for  an  exploring  trip  in  Green- 
land on  June  6,  1801,  was  unique  in  that  the  explorer  was  accompanied 
by  his  wife,  the  first  woman  to  go  on  an  Arctic  expedition.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  Lieutenant  Peary  crossed  the  great  interior  ice  cap  of  Green- 
land, from  Inglefield  Gulf  to  Independence  Bay,  and  his  return  was 
safely  accomplished  after  some  of  the  most  valuable  explorations  ever 
made  in  that  part  of  the  world. 

Smokeless  gunpowder  was  one  of  the  important  inventions  of  these 
years.  It  was  first  used  in  the  United  States  in  experiments  at  Sandy 
Hook  on  July  25,  1891.  On  September  19th  following,  the  St.  Clair 
River  tunnel,  between  the  United  States  and  Canada,  was  opened  with 
appropriate  ceremonies. 

We  may  also  notice  that  in  1S91  the  Weather  Bureau  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  at  W^ashington,  having  formerly 
been  in   the    War    Department,  and  that  experiments  were  made  with 


598  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

some  apparent  success  in  producing  rain  by  the  explosion  of  bombs  high 
in  the  air. 

On  April  2,  1892,  a  treaty  with  foreign  powers  was  signed  at  Wash- 
ington, suppressing  the  trade  in  firearms  and  spiritous  liquors  with  the 
natives  of  Africa,  and  also  authorizing  the  most  stringent  suppression  of 
the  slave  trade. 

THE    COLUMBIAN   CELEBRATION. 

As  the  four  hundredth  celebration  of  the  discovery  of  America  by 
Columbus  drew  near,  preparations  were  made  for  celebrating  it  in  an 
elaborate  manner.  The  chief  celebration  was  at  New  York,  where  there 
was  a  naval  parade  of  ships  of  all  the  navies  of  the  world,  and  a  land 
parade  of  troops  of  all  the  nations.  All  over  the  country  the  day  of  the 
actual  anniversay,  October  12th,  was  observed  as  a  holiday,  and  elabor- 
ate celebrations  were  had.  On  October  21st  the  World's  Fair  at  Chic- 
ago was  nominally  dedicated,  although  it  was  not  completed  and  opened 
to  the  public  until  the  next  spring. 

THE  DEATH  LIST. 

The  death  list  for  these  four  years  is  a  formidable  one,  comprising 
many  of  the  best  known  names  in  the  world.  In  1889,  Ericsson,  the 
engineer  ;  Chevreul,  the  greatest  of  French  chemists  ;  Joule,  the  physi- 
cist ;  Augier,  the  dramatist ;  John  Bright,  the  statesman  and  greatest 
English  orator  of  his  time  ;  Browning,  one  of  the  world's  greatest  poets, 
and  Jefferson  Davis,  ex-President  of  the  Confederate  States.  In  1890, 
Dollinger,  the  German  theologian  ;  Andrassy,  the  Austro-Hungarian 
statesman  ;  Tseng,  the  Chinese  diplomat  ;  General  Fremont,  Cardinal 
Newman,  and  Schliemann,  the  archa;ologist.  In  1891,  Kinglake  and 
Bancroft,  the  historians  ;  Meissonier,  the  painter  ;  General  Sherman  and 
his  old  antagonist.  General  J.  E.  Johnston  ;  Moltke,  the  German  war 
genius  ;  Grevy,  ex-President  of  France  ;  Parnell,  the  Irish  Home  Rule 
leader  ;  Bulwer  Lytton,  better  known  to  many  as  Owen  Meredith,  poet 
and  diplomat ;  Lowell,  poet,  essayist  and  diplomat ;  and  Dom  Pedro,  ex- 
Emperor  of  Brazil.  In  1892,  Arago,  the  French  scientist ;  Freeman,  the 
historian  ;  Walt  Whitman,  Jay  Gould,  George  William  Curtis,  Whittier, 
the  Quaker  poet  of  freedom  ;  Renan,  the  French  atheist ;  Owen,  the 
English  Socialist ;  Siemens,  the  electrician,  and  Tennyson,  the  greatest 
of  modern  poets. 


CHAPTER  LII. 


Grover  Cleveland  Becomes  President  of  the  United  States — Ambassadors- 
Behring  Sea  Arbitration — Currency  Troubles — The  Silver  Con- 
troversy—  Bond    Issues — The   Tariff    Fight — Admission 
of    Utah  —  Foreign    Affairs — The    Venezuela 
Boundary  —  Election   of  McKinley. 


GROVER  CLEVELAND  began  his  second  term  as  President 
of  the  United  States  on  March  4,  1893,  supported  by  a  strong 
Democratic  majority  in  Congress.  An  extra  session  of  the 
Senate  was  immediately  held,  and  on  March  9th  the  President 
withdrew  from  that  body  the  treaty  for  the  annexation  of  Hawaii  which 
had  been  negotiated  by  his  predecessor.  This  action  was  based  upon 
the  belief  expressed  by  President  Cleveland,  that  the  Hawaiian  revolu- 
tion had  been  brought  about  through  intrigues  of  Americans,  and  that 
the  annexation  would  be  against  the  will  of  the  Hawaiian  people.  A 
heated  political  controversy  arose  over  this  matter,  which  continued  until 
the  end  of  the  Administration.  Mr.  Cleveland  stood  his  ground  firmly, 
however,  and  the  annexation  project  was  for  the  time  defeated. 

AMBASSADORS. 

In  the  closing  days  of  the  Harrison  Administration  a  law  was  passed 
and  approved,  authorizing  the  President  to  raise  foreign  ministers  to 
ambassadorial  rank  in  all  cases  in  which  similar  action  was  taken  by  a 
foreign  country  with  respect  to  its  representative  here.  On  March  24th 
the  President  was  informed  that  Great  Britain  and  France  had  raised 
their  ministers  to  the  rank  of  ambassadors,  and  accordingly  he  appointed 
ambassadors  to  represent  the  United  States  in  those  countries.  The 
same  action  was  subsequently  taken  in  regard  to  the  other  leading  coun- 
tries of  Europe.  Thus  a  new  era  in  American  diplomatic  relations  was 
opened,  in  which  the  United  States  occupied  a  place  of  greater  dio-nitj' 
and  of  greater  advantage  than  before. 

399 


600  STORY    OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

BEHRING  SEA  ARBITRATION. 

The  differences  of  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  concerning 
the  fur  seal  fisheries  in  Behring  Sea  had,  in  the  preceding  Administra- 
tion, been  referred  to  arbitration  for  settlement.  The  court  of  arbitra- 
tion sat  at  Paris,  and  arguments  by  the  British  and  American  represen- 
tatives began  on  April  4,  1893.  The  decision  of  the  court  was  rendered 
August  15th.  It  was  partly  favorable  and  partly  unfavorable  to  the  con- 
tention of  the  United  States.  The  United  States  claim  of  exclusive 
ownership  and  jurisdiction  over  Behring  Sea  was  denied.  Regulations 
were,  however,  adopted,  forbidding  the  killing  of  seals  within  fifty  miles 
of  the  seal  islands,  or  outside  that  limit  from  May  ist  to  July  31st.  The 
United  States  was  directed  to  pay  to  Great  Britain  such  indemnity  as 
might  be  mutually  agreed  upon  between  them  for  the  American  seizures 
of  British  sealing  vessels  which  had  taken  place. 

CURRENCY  TROUBLES. 

One  of  the  chief  features  of  Mr.  Cleveland's  second  administration 
was  the  currency  agitation,  which  involved  a  serious  financial  panic.  On 
June  8,  1893,  it  was  observed  that  the  gold  reserve  in  the  United  States 
treasury,  usually  kept  at  $100,000,000,  had  fallen  to  $89,600,000.  The 
result  was  a  waning  of  business  confidence  all  over  the  country,  and  it 
was  evident  that  only  the  most  vigorous  measures  could  prevent  a  dis- 
astrous panic.  On  June  30th  President  Cleveland  called  a  special  ses- 
sion of  Congress,  to  meet  on  August  7th,  to  afford  such  relief  as  was 
possible  by  legislation.  This  was  too  late,  however,  to  stop  the  panic 
which  had  already  set  in.  In  July,  August  and  September  banks  all  over 
the  country,  including  560  State  and  private  banks  and  155  National 
banks,  were  forced  to  suspend,  and  business  was  prostrated  in  a  ruinous 
manner.  Early  in  August  there  was  such  a  "  currency  famine  "  that  a 
premium  of  $25  on  the  $1000  was  offered  for  small  bills. 

THE  SILVER  CONTROVERSY. 

There  was  a  radical  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  cause  of  the 
trouble.  One  view  was  that  it  was  caused  by  the  free  coinage  of  silver, 
which  was  then  being  practiced  to  a  limited  extent,  and  that  the  only 
way  to  restore  prosperity  and  fiscal  integrity  was  to  put  the  country  on 
the  single  gold  basis.    The  other  view  was  that  trouble  was  caused  by  the 


STORY    OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS.  6oi 

limited  coinage  of  silver  and  was  to  be  remedied  only  by  the  free  and 
unlimited  coinage  of  silver  at  the  ratio  of  sixteen  ounces  of  silver  to  one 
of  gold.  A  Silver  Convention  met  in  Denver  on  July  nth,  and  issued 
an  address  to  the  American  people,  setting  forth  this  view  of  the  case, 
and  the  National  Bi-metallic  League,  with  similar  objects,  met  in  Chicago 
on  Aucfust  1st.  The  President,  however,  took  the  anti-silver  view  of  the 
case,  and  favored  the  gold  standard.  When  Congress  met  he  recom- 
mended in  a  message  the  repeal  of  the  law  under  which  compulsory 
purchase  of  silver  by  the  Government  was  made.  A  bill  for  that  pur- 
pose was  introduced  in  the  House,  and  soon  passed.  In  the  Senate  it 
met  with  bitter  opposition  from  the  friends  of  free  silver.  It  was  amended 
with  a  clause  pledging  the  Government  to  maintain  the  bi-metallic  system 
of  currency.  A  long  and  acrimonious  debate  followed.  Senator  Allen, 
of  Nebraska,  made  against  the  bill  a  speech  that  lasted  fourteen  hours, 
the  longest  on  record  in  the  United  States  Senate.  Finally  the  bill,  as 
amended,  became  law  on  November  ist. 

This  action  saved  the  credit  of  the  country  and  helped  to  restore 
normal  conditions  in  business.      But  it   marked  the  beorinnincr  of  one  of 

o  o 

the  greatest  political  struggles  in  the  history  of  the  nation  since  the 
slavery  question  was  settled.  Former  party  lines  were  forgotten,  though 
old  party  names  and  organizations,  were  retained,  and  the  politics  of  the 
country  were  divided  on  the  silver  issue  ;  whether  there  should  be  free 
and  unlimited  coinage  of  silver  at  1 6  to  i,  or  whether  the  country  should 
be  put  and  kept  on  a  gold  standard. 

BOND  ISSUES. 

Meantime,  under  existing  laws,  the  stock  of  gold  in  the  United 
States  Treasury  was  in  constant  danger  of  depletion,  and  its  falling 
below  the  sum  of  ^100,000,000  had  a  disturbing  effect  upon  business. 
The  President  determined  to  keep  it  at  that  sum,  and  to  that  end  was 
compelled  to  resort  to  the  purchase  of  gold  by  issuing  Government  bonds 
payable  in  gold.  On  January  17,  1894,  $50,000,000  of  such  bonds  were 
issued,  and  on  November  13,  1894,  another  issue  of  like  amount  was 
made.  Other  loans  for  the  same  purpose  followed.  These  added  to  the 
amount  of  the  national  debt,  and  on  that  account  brought  much  criticism 
upon  the  President.  But  they  also  accomplished  his  purpose  of  main- 
taining the  public  credit  and  preventing  further  financial  panics. 


602  STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

THE  TARIFF   FIGHT. 

Mr.  Cleveland  had  been  elected  to  the  Presidency  as  an  avowed 
champion  of  Free  Trade,  and  his  message  to  Congress  strongly  urged 
the  abolition  of  the  Protective  system.  In  accordance  with  his  views  a 
bill  was  introduced  into  the  House  on  December  19,  1893,  by  Mr.  Wilson, 
of  West  Virginia,  providing  for  a  revenue  tariff  This  was  adopted  by 
the  House  in  due  time,  and  then  was  sent  to  the  Senate.  There  it  met 
with  determined  opposition,  not  only  from  Republicans  but  from  Demo- 
crats. No  less  than  634  amendments  were  made  to  the  Wilson  bill, 
transforming  it  into  an  entirely  new  measure  and  altogether  changing  its 
essential  principles.  In  this  form  it  was  finally  adopted  by  Congress. 
The  President  declined  to  sign  it,  and  it  became  a  law  without  his 
signature  on  August  28,  1894. 

ADMISSION  OF  UTAH. 

The  Territory  of  Utah  had  long  sought  admission  to  .Statehood,  and 
was,  in  point  of  population,  entitled  thereto.  It  had  been  kept  out  of  the 
Union,  however,  because  of  the  practice  of  polygamy  which  prevailed 
there.  In  1893,  however,  it  adopted  a  constitution  abolishing  and  forever 
prohibiting  polygamy,  and  upon  that  Congress,  in  December  of  that  year, 
considered  the  question  of  admission.  A  bill  to  that  end  was  introduced, 
and  after  some  delay  was  passed.  On  July  17,  1894,  the  President 
signed  it,  and  thus  Utah  became  in  January,  1896,  the  forty-fifth  State  in 
the  American  Union. 

Of  the  gfreat  strikes  and  other  industrial  and  social  agitations  which 
prevailed  during  this  administration,  involving  the  use  of  the  United 
States  army  for  the  vindication  of  law  and  order,  detailed  notice  will  be 
taken  in  another  chapter. 

FOREIGN  AFFAIRS. 

President  Cleveland  sent  a  special  commissioner  to  Hawaii  to 
investigate  the  revolution  there  and  the  attempt  at  annexation  to  the 
United  States.  As  a  result  of  the  investigation  he  not  only  persisted  in 
his  opposition  to  annexation,  but  favored  the  restoration  of  Queen 
Liliuokalani.  Finding  the  latter  impracticable,  however,  he  finally,  on 
August  8,  1894,  recognized  the  revolutionary  government  of  Hawaii  as  a 
sovereign  republic. 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  603 

Another  rebellion  broke  out  in  Cuba  in  1895,  directed  by  Cubans 
who  had  been  resident  in  the  United  States.  Much  interest  in  the 
struggle  was  felt  in  the  United  States,  and  the  sympathies  of  this  country 
were  manifestly  with  the  insurgents.  This  led  to  ill-feeling  between  this 
country  and  Spain,  and  the  Spanish  authorities  in  Cuba  began  to  be  sus- 
picious of  all  American  steamers  approaching  that  island,  and  of  American 
visitors  to  it.  Several  steamers  were  fired  at  and  subjected  to  search, 
under  suspicion  of  conveying  filibusters  or  contraband  material.  Some 
American  citizens  were  also  arrested  and  imprisoned  in  Cuba  on  similar 
charges.  These  incidents  gradually  strained  diplomatic  relations  between 
the  United  States  and  Spain,  and  opened  the  way  for  the  open  rupture 
which  occurred  early  in  the  next  administration. 

THE  VENEZUELA  BOUNDARY. 

The  dispute  between  Venezuela  and  Great  Britain  over  the  boundary 
line  between  the  former  and  the  latter's  colony  of  Guiana,  which  had  been 
in  existence  for  many  years,  grew  more  acute  in  1895,  ^"d  assumed  a 
most  threatening  aspect.  It  seemed  probable  that  Great  Britain  would 
enforce  her  claims  with  arms.  Deeming  such  action  on  the  part  of  a 
European  Power  toward  an  American  republic  a  violation  of  the  princi- 
ples of  the  Monroe  Doctrine  and  inimical  to  the  peace  and  welfare  of  the 
United  States,  the  President  decided  to  intervene.  On  December  1 7, 
1895,  he  sent  to  Congress  a  message,  very  strongly  worded,  asking  for 
authority  and  for  means  to  intervene,  by  appointing  a  commission  which 
should  determine  the  true  boundary  line.  The  President  bluntly  inti- 
mated that  such  action  might  mean  war  with  Great  Britain.  Congress 
responded  favorably,  making  a  liberal  appropriation,  and  the  commission 
was  appointed.  For  some  time  much  ill-feeling  existed  between  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain  over  the  matter,  and  there  was  some 
intemperate  talk  of  war.  The  net  result,  however,  was  that  Great  Britain 
agreed  to  submit  the  case  to  arbitration,  as  Venezuela  had  requested,  and 
the  arbitrators  established  the  boundary  on  a  compromise  line,  much 
more  favorable  to  Venezuela  than  the  one  which  Great  Britain  was  about 
to  insist  upon  when  the  President  intervened. 

In  January,  1897,  the  President  concluded  a  general  arbitration 
treaty  with  Great  Britain,  sweeping  in  its  terms.  This  was  sent  to  the 
Senate  early  in  the  next  administration,  when  it  was  rejected. 


604  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

An  extradition  treaty  with  Sweden  was  ratified  and  proclaimed  in 
March,  1893,  having  been  negotiated  by  the  previous  administration. 
Some  changes  were  made  in  the  Chinese  Exclusion  law.  A  new  treaty 
was  negotiated  with  Japan.  An  extradition  treaty  with  Norway  was 
proclaimed  on  November  9,  1893. 

ELECTION  OF  McKINLEY. 

The  time  for  another  Presidential  election  came  around  in  1896. 
Mr.  Cleveland's  administration  had  been  on  the  whole  able  and  patriotic. 
But  on  the  siver  question,  as  well  as  some  other  matters,  he  had  alienated 
a  large  part  of  the  Democratic  party.  The  Populist  party  had  greatly 
increased  in  strength.  The  Republicans  had  consolidated  their  forces 
and  had  won  much  strength  from  prevailing  popular  discontent. 

The  most  interesting  struggle  in  Convention  was  that  of  the  Demo- 
crats, where  the  issue  turned  on  approval  or  non-approval  of  the  Cleve- 
land administration.  The  enemies  of  the  administration  won  the  day. 
They  adopted  a  platform  condemning  the  policy  of  the  administration, 
and  calling  for  the  free  coinage  of  silver  at  16  to  i.  On  this  they  nomi- 
nated for  President  William  J.  Bryan,  of  Nebraska,  an  extreme  advo- 
cate of  silver  coinage,  and  for  Vice-President  Arthur  Sewall,  of  Maine. 
The  Populists  also  nominated  Mr.  Bryan  for  President,  but  named  for 
Vice-President  Thomas  Watson,  of  Georgia.  The  Republicans,  with 
scarcely  a  show  of  contest,  nominated  for  President  William  McKinley, 
of  Ohio,  author  of  the  McKinley  tariff,  and  for  Vice-President  Garrett  A. 
Hobart,  of  New  Jersey,  on  a  platform  distinctly  declaring  for  the  mainte- 
nance of  the  gold  standard  of  currency.  A  considerable  part  of  the 
Democratic  party  refused  to  support  Mr.  Bryan  and  the  silver  platform, 
and  put  up  candidates  of  their  own — General  Palmer,  of  Illinois,  for 
President,  and  General  Buckner,  of  Kentucky,  for  Vice-President.  Many 
Democrats,  however,  decided  to  vote  for  the  Republican  candidates  as 
the  surest  way  of  defeating  the  free  silver  movement. 

The  election  was  held  in  November,  and  resulted  in  a  sweeping 
victory  for  the  Republicans.  McKinley  and  Hobart  polled  a  large 
majority  of  the  popular  vote  over  their  Democratic  opponents.  The 
electoral  votes  were  271  for  McKinley  and  176  for  Bryan. 

At  the  end  of  his  second  administration  Mr.  Cleveland  retired  to 
private  life. 


X-RAY  MACHINE 


TEN  INCH  DISAPPEARING   RIFLE 


ELECTRIC  LIGHT 


TELEPHONE 


ALTOMOBILE 


LNDERGROUND  ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  CAR 


1900— REMARKABLE  INVENTIONS  OF  THE  NINETEENTH    CENTURY 


PRINTING    PRESS 


/C-    ._,..,._.,.^-;^^^;fe:s  i^wl-tt 


SELF-BINDING    HARVESTER 


LOCOMOTIVE 


igoo— REMARKABLE  INVENTIONS  OF  THE  NINETEENTH    CENTURY 


CHAPTER  LIII. 


Assassination  of  President  Carnot  of  France — French  Operations  Abroad 
— Universzil  Suffrage  in  Belgium — Italy  in  Abyssinia — African  Af- 
fairs— China  and  Japan — Revolts  in   Cuba  and   Crete. 


A  TROUBLOUS  period  of  the  world  at  large  now  demands  atten- 
tion, marked  with  wars  and  rumors  'of  wars,  and  the  disappear- 
ance of  many  great  figures  from  public  life.  The  year  1893  saw 
no  fewer  than  four  Cabinets  in  France,  with  the  disappearance 
from  public  life  of  many  men  smirched  by  the  Panama  scandals.  The 
conquest  of  a  great  part  of  Siam  was  effected.  In  the  next  year  other 
Cabinet  crises  occurred.  Then  came  a  hideous  catastrophe.  On  June 
24th  President  Sadi  Carnot,  one  of  the  purest  and  wisest  and  best  of 
rulers  in  the  world,  was  assassinated  by  a  vindictive  Socialist,  and  was 
borne  to  the  grave  amid  the  lamentations  of  France  and  of  the  world. 

Three  days  after  the  murder  of  Carnot,  a  new  French  President  was 
elected.  This  was  M.  Casimir-Perier,  a  statesman  of  high  character  and 
ability,  whose  administration  promised  well  for  the  French  Republic.  For 
a  short  time  the  political  affairs  of  France  seemed  to  be  settling  down 
into  peace  and  harmony.  Early  in  January,  1895,  however,  the  Cabinet 
resigned,  and  a  few  days  later,  on  January  15th,  President  Casimir- 
Perier  startled  the  world  by  resigning  his  office.  The  causes  of  this  ex- 
traordinary step  were  not  clear,  and  indeed  have  never  been  fully  eluci- 
dated. They  were,  however,  generally  believed  to  be  in  no  wise  dishon- 
orable to  him,  and  it  has  since  appeared  that  they  were  connected  with 
what  has  become  notorious  as  the  Dreyfus  case,  of  which  we  shall  hear 
more  in  a  later  chapter.  Two  days  later  Felix  Faure,  a  man  of  admira- 
ble standing,  was  elected  President  in  his  place. 

FRENCH  OPERATIONS  ABROAD. 

These  domestic  troubles  did  not,  however,  prevent  France  from  pur- 
suing an  active  career  in  foreign  affairs.  In  1895  ^  regular  war  was 
waged  against  Madagascar,  to  enforce  the  French  claims  to  a  protecto- 
rate over  that  island.     In  September  the   capital,  Antananirivo,  was  cap- 

32  607 


6o8  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

tured  by  the  French  forces  and  the  Government  dispersed.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year  Madagascar  was  formally  declared  to  be  a  colony  of  France. 
Still  more  important  was  the  drawing  together  of  France  and  Rus- 
sia. For  years  the  French  Republic  had  stood  without  an  ally  in  Europe. 
President  Faure,  however,  succeeded  in  coming  to  a  mutually  advantage- 
ous understanding  with  the  Russian  Government,  and  in  1896  formed 
a  practical  alliance  with  that  country,  which  was  fully  cemented  by  his 
visit  to  the   Czar  in    1897. 

UNIVERSAL  SUFFRAGE  IN  BELGIUM. 

Politics  in  Belgium  had  for  some  time  been  in  an  agitated  state, 
owin^r  to  the  demands  of  the  Socialists  for  the  overthrow  of  the  Clerical 
oligarchy,  which  was  in  power.  In  1893  a  long  step  toward  a  peaceful 
revolution  was  effected  by  the  granting  of  universal  suffrage,  with,  how- 
ever, a  complicated  system  of  plural  ballots. 

A  Chancellor  crisis  occurred  in  Germany  in  the  following  year. 
General  Caprivi,  a  high-minded  soldier,  who  had  been  appointed  Chan- 
cellor to  succeed  Bismarck,  found  himself  the  prey  of  an  unscrupulous 
ring  of  intriguers.  Unwilling  to  make  himself  the  tool  or  the  scapegoat 
of  their  machinations,  he  resigned  his  office,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Prince  Hohenlohe. 

The  Kingdom  of  Hungary  was,  in  1894,  the  scene  of  another  peace- 
ful revolution.  In  that  year  a  number  of  liberal  laws  were  enacted, 
especially  that  making  marriage  a  civil  contract  and  decreeing  e.xact 
equality  of  all  religious  sects  before  the  law.  In  this  Hungary  placed 
herself  in  the  front  rank  of  progressive  nations. 

ITALY  IN  ABYSSINIA. 

The  Italian  attempt  to  found  a  colony  in  Africa  and  to  effect  the  con- 
quest of  Abyssinia  had  met  with  little  success.  In  1896  it  came  to  a  dis- 
astrous crisis.  On  March  1st  Meneiek,  King  of  Shoa,  who  had  assumed 
by  virtue  of  power  the  crown  as  Negus  or  Emperor  of  Abyssinia,  in- 
flicted a  crushing  defeat  upon  the  Italian  army  under  General  Baratieri, 
at  Adowa.  Thereupon  Count  Crispi,  the  Italian  Prime  Minister,  resigned 
his  office  and  was  succeeded  by  the  Marquis  Rudini.  In  October  follow- 
ing a  treaty  was  concluded  between  Italy  and  Abyssinia,  under  which 
Italy  withdrew  her  pretensions  to  a  protectorate  over  the  African  realm. 


STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED   YEARS.  609 

AFRICAN    AFFAIRS. 

Italy  was  not  the  only  Power  that  had  African  problems  to  deal  with 
in  these  years.  In  the  summer  of  1893  the  atrocities  of  Lobengula,  King 
of  Matabeleland,  in  South  Africa,  brought  him  into  conflict  with  the 
British  South  Africa  Company,  and  a  short  war  ensued.  The  result  of 
it,  in  1894,  w-as  the  deposition  of  Lobengula,  and  the  establishment  of 
British  authority  over  Matabeleland,  which  thus  became  a  part  of  Rhode- 
sia, the  new  British  colony. 

In  the  fall  of  1895  the  oppressions  of  the  Boer  Government  of  the 
Transvaal  upon  the  British  and  American  colonists  there  became  so  great 
as  to  provoke  formal  protest.  This  state  of  affairs  prompted  Dr.  Jame- 
son, the  British  Administrator  of  the  South  Africa  Company's  territory, 
to  organize  a  raid  into  the  Transvaal  in  aid  of  the  colonists,  with  the  in- 
tention  of  overthrowino-  the  Boer  Government.     This  mad  and  wicked 

o 

undertaking  failed  utterly,  and  resulted  only  in  the  condition  of  the  colo- 
nists being  made  less  tolerable.  .Several  of  the  leading  English  and 
American  residents  of  the  Transvaal  were  seized  by  the  Boers,  charged 
with  complicity  in  the  raid,  and  condemned  to  death.  Their  lives  were 
spared  only  on  the  payment  of  enormous  ransoms  to  President  Kruger 
of  the  Transvaal. 

At  the  beginning  of  1896  a  British  expedition  was  sent  to  Coomassie, 
.  the  capital  of  Ashantee,  to  put  a  stop  to  the  barbarities  practiced  there, 
and  as  a  result  Ashantee  was  made  a  British  dependency.  In  the 
same  year  the  British  general.  Kitchener,  Sirdar  of  the  Egyptian  army, 
began  a  formidable  expedition  up  the  Nile  to  retake  Khartoum  and  re- 
deem the  Soudan  from  the  savagery  of  the  Mahdists.  In  September, 
1896,  he  reached  and  occupied  Dongola. 

CHINA  AND  JAPAN. 

Chinese  despotism  in  Corea  led  in  1894  to  intervention  by  Japan 
and  a  war  between  the  two  great  Mongolian  Powers.  Hostilities  began 
in  July,  1894.  The  Japanese  won  the  first  engagement,  at  Ping-yang,  in 
Corea,  on  September  16th,  and  followed  this  with  a  great  naval  victory 
off  the  Yalu  River  the  next  day.  Then  they  invaded  Manchuria,  and 
by  the  end  of  November  captured  Port  Arthur.  Early  in  the  next 
year  the  Japanese  captured  the  forts  and  captured  or  destroyed  the 
Chinese  fleet   at  Wei-Hai-Wei,  and  in  March    occupied  New   Chwang. 


GlO  STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

China  then  sued  for  peace,  and  by  the  treaty  of  Shimonoseki,  in  April, 
recognized  the  independence  of  Corea,  ceded  Formosa  and  Leao-Tong 
to  Japan,  and  agreed  to  pay  a  large  indemnity  in  cash.  These  terms 
were  reasonable  and  moderate.  But  Russia  coveted  Leao-Tong  for  her- 
self, and  accordingly  got  France  and  Germany  to  join  her  in  threatening 
Japan  with  a  joint  attack  by  all  three  of  them  if  she  did  not  renounce 
her  tide  to  that  province.  Japan  reluctantly  yielded  to  this  bullying.  But 
the  result  of  the  war  was  to  show  Japan  to  be  entitled  to  a  place  in  the 
front  rank  of  the  world's  military  and  naval  powers,  as  she  had  already 
won  such  rank  in  civilization  and  the  art  of  government. 

REVOLTS  IN  CUBA  AND  CRETE. 

The  last  of  the  Cuban  revolutions  was  begun  in  1895.  Spain  sent 
an  enormous  army  to  the  island,  and  under  the  rule  of  the  distinguished 
Marshal  Martinez  Campos,  and  under  the  savage  administration  of 
General  Weyler,  "the  butcher,"  who  deliberately  decreed  the  extermina- 
tion of  all  Cubans,  men,  women  and  children,  made  desperate  efforts  to 
retain  her  control  of  the  island.  She  was  unable,  however,  to  suppress 
the  revolt,  or  even  to  check  its  progress. 

A  revolution  occurred  in  the  Philippine  Islands  also  in  1894,  which 
was  suppressed  by  the  Spaniards  by  the  simple  expedient  of  paying  the 
leaders  a  large  sum  of  money. 

An  insurrection  against  Turkish  misrule  was  begun  in  Crete  in  1896 
and  continued  into  1897.  Greece  decided  to  intervene  and  annex  the 
island,  and  sent  an  armed  force  thither  for  the  purpose  early  in  1897. 
But  the  European  Powers  intervened  to  prevent  her  from  doing  so,  and 
established  a  blockade  of  the  island.  Their  purpose  was,  however,  not  to 
uphold  Turkish  tyranny,  but  to  make  Crete  autonomous,  a  scheme  which 
was  effected  at  a  later  date. 

We  must  also  notice  in  passing  the  civil  war  in  Brazil,  which  raged 
during  the  latter  part  of  1893  and  most  of  1894.  It  resulted  finally  in 
the  suppression  of  the  insurgents. 

The  Russian  Czar,  Alexander  III,  died  on  November  i,  1894,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Nicholas  II.  The  Shah  of  Persia,  Nasr-ed- 
Deen,  was  assassinated  on  May  i,  1896,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Muzaffer-ed-Deen. 


CHAPTER  LIV, 


Columbian  Fair  and  Celebration — Quick  Railroad  Time — The  Cherokee 

Lands  —  Centenary  of   the   Capitol  —  Great   Achievements 

—  In    Austria- Hungary  —  Necrology. 


THE  World's  Columbian  Exposition,  held  at  Chicago,  Illinois,  from 
May  I  to  October  30,  1893,  was  by  far  the  greatest  world's  fair 
that  had  down  to  that  time  ever  been  held,  though  it  was  slightly 
surpassed  in  number  of  visitors  by  that  of  Paris  in  i88g.  Its  site 
occupied  633  acres,  of  which  190  acres  were  under  roofs.  The  main  build- 
ing was  the  largest  in  the  world,  covering  30^  acres.  Most  of  the 
buildings  were  covered  externally  with  a  white  composition  of  plaster, 
cement  and  hemp,  so  that  the  whole  fair  was  popularly  termed  the 
"White  City."  No  less  than  fifty-two  foreign  countries  participated  in 
the  exhibition.  The  total  number  of  visitors  was  27,529,400.  The  fair 
was  opened  with  imj  osing  ceremonies,  and  its  progress  was  marked 
with  many  others.  There  were  a  World's  Congress  of  Religions  and 
numerous  other  international  congresses  of  great  interest. 

QUICK  RAILROAD  TIME. 

The  improvements  in  railroads  had  made  by  this  time  so  much 
progress  that  for  a  passenger  train  to  be  run  at  the  rate  of  a  mile  a 
minute  was  an  every-day  performance.  Special  runs  were  made  at 
much  higher  speed.  The  fastest  was  that  of  Engine  No.  999,  on  the 
New  York  Central  &  Hudson  River  Railroad,  which,  on  May  11,  1893. 
ran  a  mile  in  thirty-two  seconds,  on  the  road  between  Rochester  and 
Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

THE  CHEROKEE  LANDS. 

A  large  tract  of  land,  containing  more  than  6,000,000  acres,  lying 
between  Kansas  and  Oklahoma,  was  on  May  iSth  purchased  from  the 
Cherokee  Indians  by  the  United  States  Government  for  $8,596,736,  to 
be  added  to  the  Territory  of  Oklahoma.     On  September  i6th,  following, 

611 


6l2  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

the  tract  was  thrown  open  to  settlement,  and  was  quickly  occupied  by 
more  than  100,000  persons,  most  of  whom  went  in  with  a  wild  rush. 

CENTENARY  OF  THE  CAPITOL.' 

The  centennial  anniversary  of  the  laying  of  the  corner-stone  of  the 
Capitol  at  Washington  was  celebrated  on  September  18,  1893,  ^'^'•^h 
elaborate  exercises.  William  Wirt  Henry,  of  Virginia,  was  the  chief 
orator  of  the  occasion. 

A  furious  hurricane  swept  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  Southern  States 
on  August  28th,  resulting  in  the  loss  of  more  than  600  lives  at  Beaufort, 
S.  C,  and  adjacent  places.  This  was  followed  by  another  on  October 
2d,  which  devastated  the  Coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  destroyed 
more  than  2000  lives. 

GREAT  ACHIEVEMENTS. 

The  year  1894  saw  the  opening  of  the  Manchester  Ship  Canal,  in 
England,  and  of  the  German  canal  connecting  the  Baltic  and  North  Seas, 
of  which  mention  has  previously  been  made.  In  the  following  year  all 
previous  records  of  advances  toward  the  North  Pole  were  eclipsed  by 
the  achievement  of  Dr.  Frithiof  Nansen,  a  Norwegian  explorer.  He 
went  as  far  north  as  he  could  in  his  ship,  the  "  Fram,"  simply  drifting 
with  the  great  ice-pack  north  of  the  Asian  continent.  When  finally  no 
further  progress  was  to  be  m.ade  in  that  way,  he  and  one  companion 
took  to  the  ice  on  a  sledge,,  and  reached  a  latitude  of  86  deg.  14  min. 
His  entire  expedition  returned  to  Europe  in  safety.  The  same  year  was 
signalized  by  two  scientific  discoveries  of  great  interest.  These  were  the 
discovery  of  argon,  a  hitherto  unknown  constituent  of  the  atmosphere, 
by  Lord  Rayleigh  and  William  Ramsay,  and  the  discovery  of  the  so- 
called  X-rays,  by  Professor  Roentgen,  by  means  of  which  it  has  become 
possible  to  see  and  to  photograph  the  interiors  of  solid  bodies. 

IN  AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 

While  Americans  were  celebrating  the  four  hundredth  anniversary 
of  the  discovery  of  the  continent,  Hungarians  Avere  preparing  to  com- 
memorate the  one  thousandth  anniversary  of  their  chief  city,  Buda-Pesth, 
the  millennial  anniversary  of  which  was  marked  in  1896  with  a  great 
world's  fair. 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  613 

In  the  same  year  the  famous  Iron  Gates  of  the  Danube  were 
opened — the  obstructions  to  commerce  at  that  point  were  removed  and 
the  river  made  a  far  more  valuable  highway  of  trade  and  travel  than 
ever  before. 

On  February  2,  1894,  the  famous  old  corvette  "  Kearsarge,"  which 
fought  and  destroyed  the  Confederate  cruiser  "Alabama"  in  the  Civil 
War,  was  wrecked  on  the  coral  reef  of  Roncador,  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
and  was  entirely  lost. 

The  labor  agitations  of  1S94  included  the  setting  out  of  an  "army" 
of  unemployed  men  and  tramps,  under  the  lead  of  Jacob  S.  Coxey,  from 
Massillon,  Ohio,  to  march  to  Washington  and  make  a  demonstration 
against  the  Government  for  social  and  industrial  relief.  It  was  joined 
by  other  like  bodies,  and  reached  Washington  at  the  end  of  April. 
Coxey  and  other  leaders  were  locked  up  for  trespassing  upon  the  Capi- 
tol grounds,  and  the  motley  band  was  dispersed. 

NECROLOGY. 

The  deaths  in  1893  included  Taine,  the  French  historian  and  critic; 
Jowett,  the  British  educator,  head  of  Balliol  College  ;  Marshal  Mac- 
Mahon,  ex-President  of  France  ;  Gounod,  the  musician  ;  Parkman,  the 
historian;  Tyndall,  the  scientist;  and  Merivale,  the  novelist.  In  1894 
the  world  lost  Kossuth,  the  Hungarian  liberator;  Layard,  the  archaeolo- 
gist ;  Helmholtz,  the  scientist ;  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes,  the  poet  and 
essayist;  Rubinstein,  the  pianist;  and  Froude,  the  historian.  In  1895 
died  Huxley,  the  scientist;  Rawlinson,  the  historian  and  archaeologist; 
Dumas  the  Younger,  novelist  and  dramatist ;  and  Pasteur,  the  founder 
of  the  science  of  bacteriology.  The  roll  in  1896  bore  the  names  of 
Leighton  and  Millais,  the  painters  ;  Thomas  Hughes,  author  and  philan- 
thropist ;  Mrs.  Stowe,  author  of  "  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin  ;"  and  William 
Morris,  Socialist,  poet  and  publisher. 


CHAPTER  LV. 


William  McKinley  Becomes  President  of  the  United  States — The  Dingley 
Tariff — Partition  of  S&moa — Intervention   in   Cuba — "  Remember 
the   Maine  " — Beginning   of  the  War — Manila  Bay — Cer- 
vera's   Fleet — Santiago — Peace  Negotiations — The 
Philippine  Insurrection — Events  of  the  Ad- 
ministration— Presidential  Election. 


THE  last  presidential  administration  of  the  nineteenth  century 
began  in  the  United  States  with  the  inauguration  of  William 
McKinley  on  March  4,  1897.  It  was  also  destined  to  be  one  of 
the  most  momentous  and  important  of  all  adminstrations.  One 
of  the  earliest  acts  of  Mr.  McKinley  was,  on  June  16,  1897,  the  sub- 
mission to  the  Senate  of  a  new  treaty  for  annexation  of  Hawaii  to  the 
United  States.  The  treaty  was  carefully  considered  for  a  long  time, 
and  some  negotiations  were  had  with  Japan  concerning  the  status  of  her 
subjects  settled  in  the  islands.  It  was  finally  ascertained  that,  while  a 
strong  majority  of  the  Senate  favored  the  treaty,  it  would  be  impossible- 
to  get  the  necessary  two-thirds  vote  for  it.  The  treaty  was  therefore 
abandoned,  and  on  March  16,  1898,  a  joint  resolution  providing  for 
annexation  was  introduced  into  Congress  in  its  place.  This  was  adopted 
by  the  House  of  Representatives  on  June  15th  by  a  vote  of  209  to  91, 
and  by  the  Senate  on  July  6th  by  a  vote  of  42  to  21.  On  August  12th 
the  United  States  flag  was  formally  raised  at  Honolulu,  and  the  act  of 
annexation  was  thus  made  complete. 

THE  DINGLEY  TARIFF. 

A  new  tariff  bill,  in  accordance  with  the  Republican  principle  of 
protection,  was  framed  by  Mr.  Dingley,  Chairman  of  the  House  Com- 
mittee on  Ways  and  Means,  and  was  introduced  on  March  15,  1897.  It 
was  debated  at  length,  and  received  a  few  amendments  in  the  Senate, 
but  was  finally  adopted  by  both  houses,  and  became  a  law  on  July  24 

1897- 

614 


STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED   YEARS.  615 

The  same  year  saw  a  renewal  of  negotiations  with  Great  Britain 
concerning  the  Behring  Sea  seal  fisheries.  The  negotiations  continued 
into  1898,  when  the  commissioners  appointed  by  the  two  countries 
agreed  upon  the  Indemnity  that  was  to  be  paid  by  the  United  States, 
under  the  terms  of  the  Paris  award,  for  the  seizure  of  British  vessels. 
The  sum  of  ^473,157.26  was  accordingly  paid. 

PARTITION  OF  SAMOA. 

The  year  1899  saw  the  culmination  of  troubles  which  had  been 
brewing  in  Samoa  for  a  long  time.  Civil  war  broke  out  among  the 
natives  over  the  disputed  succession  to  the  throne,  and  Intervention  of 
the  three  Powers  followed.  For  a  time  there  was  some  friction  arrlone 
the  Powers,  Germany  being  on  one  side  and  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States  on  the  other.  Ultimately  it  was  amicably  agreed  to 
abolish  the  tripartite  control  of  the  Islands  and  to  partition  them  out- 
right among  the  Powers.  The  United  States  took  the  island  of  Tutuila, 
which  contains  the  fine  harbor  of  Pago-Pago,  the  most  valuable  in  the 
whole  group.  Germany  took  the  other  two  Islands,  and  compensated 
Great  Britain  by  cessions  of  territory  in  the  East  Indian  archipelago 
and   elsewhere   and   in   Zanzibar. 

INTERVENTION    IN   CUBA. 

Mention  has  hitherto  been  made  of  the  revolt  in  Cuba,  and  of  the 
friction  between  the  United  States  and  Spain  resulting  therefrom.  In 
April,  1S97,  the  President  appointed  a  commissioner  to  investigate 
reported  cases  of  Spanish  oppression  of  American  citizens,  and  later 
notified  the  Spanish  Government  that  he  recognized  a  state  of  war  to 
be  existing  in  Cuba,  and  would  require  observance  of  the  usual  laws  of 
war  so  far  as  American  citizens  were  concerned.  There  was  much  aelta- 
tlon  in  the  United  States  In  favor  of  recognition  of  the  independence 
of  the  Cuban  Republic,  and,  indeed,  of  armed  intervention,  and  various 
resolutions  to  those  ends  were  Introduced  into  Coneress.  But  the  PresI- 
dent  stood  firmly  against  all  such  action,  as  premature  and  unwarranted. 
In  October,  1897,  the  infamous  Wyler  was  removed  from  rule  In  Cuba 
by  the  Spanish  Government,  and  General  Blanco  was  put  into  his  place. 
But  the  state  of  affairs  in  the  island  was  not  materially  changed. 


6l6  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

The  United  States  made  appropriations  for  the  rehef  of  starving 
people  in  Cuba,  and  early  in  1S98  shiploads  of  supplies  and  a  number 
of  nurses  were  sent  to  the  island.  A  little  later  relations  between  the 
two  countries  were  much  embittered  by  the  revelation  that  the  Spanish 
minister  at  Washington,  Senor  Dupuy  de  Lome,  had  written  a  letter  to 
a  friend  in  Havana  coarsely  reviling  President  McKinley  and  the  United 
States  Government.  This  led  to  his  resignation  and  departure  from  the 
country,  another  minister  being  sent  to  take  his  place. 

"REMEMBER  THE   MAINE." 

In  order  to  cultivate  a  friendly  spirit  between  the  two  countries  it 
was  arranged  early  in  1898  that  a  Spanish|warship  should  visit  the  harbor 
of  JSfew  York,  and  an  American  warship  should  visit  Havana.  The 
Spanish  ship  "  Viscaya  "  accordingly  came  to  New  York,  and  was  re- 
ceived in  a  courteous  and  friendly  way.  The  American  ship  "Maine" 
similarly  Avent  to  Havana,  and  was  well  received.  But  not  long  after  her 
arrival,  and  while  she  was  lying  in  the  harbor  of  Havana,  at  a  spot 
specially  selected  for  her  by  the  .Spanish  authorities,  the  "Maine"  was 
destroyed  by  an  external  submarine  explosion,  probably  that  of  a  mine 
or  torpedo,  though  its  exact  nature  has  never  been  ascertained.  This 
tragic  incident  occurred  on  the  evening  of  February  15th,  and  2  officers 
and  266  men  were  instantly  killed. 

The  people  and  Government  of  the  United  States  acted  with  marked 
calmness  and  self-control.  There  was  litde  doubt  that  the  awful  deed 
had  been  done  by  Spaniards,  with  some  degree  of  official  connivance. 
But  judgment  was  suspended  and  friendly  relations  were  maintained 
with  Spain. 

BEGINNING   OF   THE   WAR. 

The  Spanish  Government,  however,  became  less  and  less  friendly  in 
its  attitude  toward  the  United  States.  It  declined  to  let  Americans  re- 
lieve the  distress  of  starving  and  dying  people  in  Cuba,  and  demanded 
the  recall  of  the  United  States  Consul-General,  General  Lee.  Some  of 
the  most  conservative  and  prudent  men  in  the  United  States,  including 
Senator  Proctor  of  Vermont,  visited  Cuba  and  gave  appalling  accounts 
of  the  horrors  existing  there.  Congress  unanimously  adopted  a  resolu- 
tion appropriating  ^50,000,000,  to  be  placed  unreservedly  in  the  Presi- 
dent's hands,   for  purposes  of  national  defence.     The  President  acted, 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  617 

however,  with  the  utmost  reserve  and  caution,  wishing  to  avoid  war  if 
possible,  and  to  give  Spain  every  possible  opportunity  of  righting  the 
hideous  wroncrs  in  Cuba,  which  were  causint;  the  whole  civilized  world  to 
protest  against  their  continuance. 

Finally,  on  April  iith,  the  President  sent  a  message  to  Congress 
telling  of  the  terrible  state  of  affairs  in  Cuba,  and  of  the  great  cost  and 
serious  menace  they  entailed  upon  the  United  States,  as  well  as  their  re- 
proach to  civilization.  Congress  replied  on  April  19th  with  resolutions 
declaring  that  Cuba  should  be  free  from  Spanish  rule,  and  authorizing  the 
President  to  intervene.  This  action  was  made  known  to  the  Spanish 
Government,  which  immediately,  on  April  21st,  declared  war  against  the 
United  States. 

MANILA    BAY. 

Preparations  were  at  once  made  for  sending  an  army  to  Cuba.  First, 
however,  a  United  States  fleet  was  sent  to  blockade  the  Cuban  coast. 
This  it  did  effectively,  and  it  seized  many  Spanish  ships  as  prizes  of  war. 
At  the  same  time  it  was  reported  that  a  Spanish  fleet  at  Manila,  in  the 
Philippine  Islands,  was  preparing  to  prey  upon  American  commerce  in 
the  Pacific,  and  even  to  attack  San  Francisco  and  other  Pacific  coast 
ports.  Commodore  Dewey,  at  Hong  Kong,  was  therefore  directed  to 
proceed  with  his  squadron  to  Manila  and  destroy  the  Spanish  fleet.  He 
set  out  at  once,  and  reached  the  entrance  to  Manila  harbor  on  the  night 
of  April  30th.  He  steamed  into  the  harbor  in  the  darkness,  and  at  day- 
break lay  within  range  of  the  Spanish  fleet  and  forts.  An  attack  was  at 
once  made,  and  after  a  few  hours  of  fighting,  the  Spanish  forts  were 
silenced  and  the  entire  Spanish  fleet  was  destroyed.  Dewey  did  not  lose 
a  man,  nor  have  one  ship  materially  injured. 

This  brilliant  achievement  electrified  the  world.  Congress  voted  its 
thanks  to  Dewey,  and  authorized  his  promotion  to  the  rank  of  admiral, 
which  was  revived  for  his  especial  benefit.  The  Spanish  power  in  the 
Philippines  was  broken  down,  and  the  islands  became  by  conquest  the 
property  of  the   United  States. 

CERVERA'S    FLEET. 

Meantime  the  Spanish  Government  dispatched  Admiral  Cervera  with 
four  powerful  battleships  to  American  waters,  either  to  raise  the  block- 
ade of  Cuba,  or  to  attack  the  coast  cities  of  the  United  States.     Much 


6l8  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

alarm  was  felt  in  this  country  until  on  May  19th  it  was  found  that 
Cervera's  fleet  had  entered  the  harbor  of  Santiago  de  Cuba.  It  was 
quickly  penned  in  there  by  Commodore  Schley,  who  was  presently  joined 
by  Commodore  Sampson,  with  a  strong  fleet.  Before  this  there  had 
been  some  bombardment  of  points  on  the  coasts  of  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico 
by  the  United  States  ships.  On  the  night  of  June  3d  Lieutenant  Hobson 
took  the  big  coal  ship  "  Merrimac  "  into  the  narrowest  part  of  the  Santi- 
ago channel  and  sunk  her,  thus  hoping  to  prevent  the  exit  of  the  Spanish 
ships.  He  and  his  six  comrades  were  captured  after  this  exploit  by  the 
Spaniards,  but  for  their  dashing  heroism  were  treated  with  the  utmost 
respect  and  consideration.  At  about  the  same  time  Schley  bombarded 
and  destroyed  the  forts  at  the  entrance  to  Santiago  harbor.  On  June  6th 
the  advance  guard  of  the  American  army  was  landed  at  Guantanamo  on 
the  south  coast  of  Cuba.  On  June  2 2d  General  Shafter  landed  a  strong 
army  near  Santiago,  and  the  siege  of  that  city  was  soon  begun. 

At  about  this  time  another  Spanish  fleet  under  Admiral  Camara  set 
out  for  the  Pacific  by  the  way  of  the  Suez  canal,  to  retake  Manila  and  at- 
tack the  Californian  coast.  The  United  States  at  once  prepared  a  fleet, 
under  Commodore  Watson,  to  proceed  to  Spain  and  attack  its  coast 
cities.  This  menace  had  the  effect  of  causing  Camara' s  hurried  return 
to  Spain.  We  must  not  forget,  either,  the  voyage  of  the  "  Oregon." 
That  splendid  battleship  was  at  San  Francisco  before  the  war.  It  was 
patent  that  she  would  be  needed  in  the  Atlantic  and  in  the  Gulf  more 
than  in  the  Pacific,  so  she  was  ordered  to  hasten  thither.  Her  com- 
mander, Captain  Clark,  brought  her  at  racing  speed  around  Cape  Horn, 
and  reached  the  Florida  coast  without  an  accident,  and  with  the  ship 
ready  for  instant  service,  a  feat  unapproached  in  the  history  of  the 
world's  navies. 

On  the  morning  of  July  3d  Admiral  Cervera  made  a  desperate  at- 
tempt to  break  out  of  Santiago.  He  came  out  with  his  fleet  at  full  speed, 
and  headed  toward  the  west.  The  American  fleet  was  ready  for  him,  and 
a  tremendous  running  fight  ensued.  Two  Spanish  torpedo  boats  were 
engaged  and  sunk  by  the  United  States  gunboat  "  Gloucester,"  formerly 
a  pleasure  yacht.  The  four  big  warships,  "  Maria  Theresa,"  "Oquendo," 
"Viscaya,"  and  "Cristobal  Colon,"  were  pursued  by  the  "  Brooklyn," 
"Oregon,"  "Iowa"  and  "Texas."  After  a  running  fight  of  fifty  miles 
along  the  Cuban  coast  all  the  Spanish   ships  were  driven  ashore  and  de- 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  619 

stroyed,  with  a  loss  of  more  than  300  men  killed,  159  wounded,  and  i8co 
prisoners.  The  American  losses  were  one  man  killed  and  three  wounded, 
with  no  ship  seriously  injured. 

SANTIAGO. 

A  series  of  land  battles  was  fought  around  Santiago,  beginning  on 
July  1st.  At  El  Caney  the  American  losses  were  loo  killed  and  wounded 
and  the  Spanish  losses  twice  as  heavy.  Negotiations  for  surrender 
followed,  and  on  July  17th  Santiago  was  surrendered  to  the  United 
States  army. 

On  July  25th  the  invasion  of  Porto  Rico  was  begun,  and  the  con- 
quest of  that  island  was  speedily  and  easily  effected. 

PEACE  NEGOTIATIONS. 

At  the  beginning  of  August  the  Spanish  Government  recognized 
the  hopelessness  of  its  cause  and  sought  peace  through  the  friendly  me- 
diation of  the  French  Government.  Hostilities  were  finally  suspended  at 
the  signing  of  a  protocol  on  August  12th,  though  some  fighting  occurred 
near  Manila  on  the  following  day,  but  before  news  of  the  protocol 
arrived  there. 

The  President  appointed,  on  August  26th,  five  peace  comm,issioners, 
to  conclude  terms  of  peace  with  Spain.  These  were  William  R.  Day,  of 
Ohio,  Secretary  of  State;  Senators  C.  K.  Davis,  of  Minnesota;  \V.  P. 
Frye,  of  Maine,  and  George  Gray,  of  Delaware ;  and  Whitelaw  Reid,  of 
New  York.  They  proceeded  to  Paris  and  there  met  corresponding  rep- 
resentatives of  the  Spanish  Government.  Long  deliberations  followed, 
the  end  of  which  was  the  conclusion  of  a  treaty  of  peace,  providing  for 
the  independence  of  Cuba,  the  cession  to  the  United  States  of  Porto 
Rico,  the  Philippines,  and  Guam,  and  the  payment  to  Spain,  on  account 
of  her  expenditures  on  public  works  in  the  Philippines,  of  ^20,000,000. 
This  treaty  was  ratified  by  the  United  States  Senate  early  in  1899. 

THE  PHILIPPINE  INSURRECTION. 

A  faction  of  the  Philippine  natives,  under  the  lead  of  Emilio  Aguin- 
aldo,  objected  to  the  cession  ot  the  islands  to  the  United  States,  and  re- 
vived against  the  latter  the  revolt  they  had  years  before  made  against  Spain. 
This  necessitated  the  sending  of  a  large  American  army  to  the  Philippines, 


620  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

and  a  tedious  campaign  against  irregular  guerrilla-fighting  followed.  A 
civil  government  was  established  in  the  Philippines  by  the  United  States 
early  in  1900,  but  the  insurrection  of  the  natives,  chiefly  in  the  island  of 
Luzon,  continued  and  is  not  yet  wholly  quelled. 

EVENTS  OF  THE  ADMINISTRATION. 

The  McKinley  Administration  saw  the  cities  of  New  York,  Brook- 
lyn, Long  Island  City,  etc.,  united  into  one  great  city  on  January  i,  1898, 
thus  forming  the  second  largest  city  in  the  world. 

In  1897  the  world  was  startled  by  the  discovery  of  gold  in  the  Klon- 
dyke  region,  partly  in  Alaska  and  partly  in  British  Columbia,  in  deposits 
of  wonderful  richness,  and  a  rush  to  that  region  followed  similar  to  that 
of  years  before  to  California.  In  1890-1900  other  deposits  were  found 
at  Cape  Nome,  on  the  Alaska  coast,  and  another  rush  was  made  thither. 
These  latter,  however,  proved  disappointing. 

The  years  of  this  Administration  were  marked  with  the  greatest 
commercial  expansion  known  in  American  history.  For  the  first  time 
the  United  States  became  the  greatest  commercial  nation  in  the  world, 
her  exports  surpassing  those  of  any  other  land.  Especially  was  this  the 
case  in  engineering  supplies,  American  rails,  locomotives,  bridges,  ma- 
chinery, etc.,  being  sent  to  Europe,  Asia,  Africa  and  the  islands  of  the  sea. 

The  final  census  of  the  century  was  taken  in  the  summer  of  19CX), 
and  the  population  of  the  United  States  was  found  to  be  about  75,000,000. 

PRESIDENTIAL  ELECTION. 

The  year  1900  saw  another  Presidential  contest  in  the  United  States. 
The  Republicans  renominated  President  McKinley,  and,  as  Vice-Presi- 
dent Hobart  had  died  during  his  term  of  office,  they  nominated  Theo- 
dore Roosevelt,  Governor  of  New  York,  for  Vice-President.  The  Demo- 
crats again  nominated  Mr.  Bryan,  with  ex-Vice-President  Stevenson  as 
candidate  for  Vice-President.  Various  minor  tickets  were  also  put  into 
the  field,  but  the  real  contest  was  between  these  two.  The  chief  issues 
were  that  of  free  silver  or  sound  money,  as  in  1896,  and  that  of  "im- 
perialism," charged  against  the  McKinley  Administration  on  account  of 
its  acquisition  of  the  Philippines.  The  election  occurred  on  November 
6th,  and  resulted  in  the  success  of  McKinley  and  Roosevelt  by  a  large 
majority. 


CHAPTER  LVL 


War  Between  Greece  and  Turkey — Queen  Victoria's  Jubilee — Redeeming 

the  Soudan — Germany  in  China — The  Dreyfus   Case — Spoliation 

of  Finland — Australian  Federation — The  Transvaal  War — 

Anarchist  Murders— The  Boxer  Outbreak  in  China. 


THE  year  1897  opened  in  Europe  not  quite  so  unprosperously  as 
1896,  but  there  was  still  trouble  in  the  air.  The  Armenian  ques- 
tion was  not  exhausted  when  an  insurrection  broke  out  in  Crete, 
to  which  the  Greek  Government  lent  open  support.  Miscalculat- 
ing- the  strength  of  the  Turkish  Empire,  or  hoping  that  a  vigorous  stroke 
might  set  all  Eastern  Europe  in  a  flame,  the  Greeks  finally  declared  war 
on  the  Sultan,  and  tried  to  invade  Macedonia.  But  the  Powers  refused 
to  move  ;  it  was  generally  thought  that  Greece  had  no  right  to  open  the 
Eastern  question  in  such  a  violent  manner,  and  she  received  no  aid. 
Her  raw  army  was  overwhelmed  by  the  numbers  of  the  Turks,  and  fled 
in  panic  (April,  1897),  so  that  the  King  had  to  sue  for  peace  in  the  most 
humiliating  fashion.  The  Powers  insisted  that  the  terms  should  not  be 
too  hard,  ior  no  one  wished  to  encourage  the  Sultan,  and  Greece  was  let 
off  with  the  cession  of  a  few  mountain  passes  and  a  fine  of  four  million 
Turkish  pounds. 

Following  upon  this  war,  however,  the  Cretan  question  was  finally 
settled.  The  island  was  made  autonomous  and  practically  independent, 
under  a  Governor-General  of  its  own,  and  Prince  George,  second  son  of 
the  King  of  Greece,  was  chosen  to  be  its  Governor.  This  step  gave  the 
island  its  coveted  home  rule,  and  made  its  ultimate  annexation  to  Greece 
practically  certain. 

QUEEN  VICTORIA'S  JUBILEE. 

This  Eastern  crisis  having  passed  over  without  any  further  develop 
ments,  the  inhabitants  of  the  United  Kingdom  and  of  the  whole  British 
Empire  were  able  to  celebrate,  undisturbed  by  any  grave  trouble  from 
without,  the  Queen's   "Diamond    Jubilee"  on  the   20th  of  June,    1897. 
Having  completed  the  sixtieth  year  of  her  reign  the  aged  sovereign  had 

621 


622  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

then  worn  the  EngHsh  crown  for  a  longer  period  than  any  of  her  ances- 
tors. Her  grandfather,  George  III,  who  died  in  the  fifty-ninth  year  after 
his  accession,  was  the  only  British  monarch  who  approached  her  length 
of  rule. 

REDEEMING  THE   SOUDAN. 

The  Soudan  expedition,  which  had  started  in  1896  to  destroy  the 
power  of  the  Khalifa  and  reconquer  the  valley  of  the  Middle  Nile,  had 
met  with  uniform  success  from  its  start.  Under  the  able  guidance  of 
Sir  Herbert  Kitchener,  the  commander  of  the  Egyptian  army,  it  had 
cleared  the  dervishes  out  of  the  province  of  Dongola  in  1896  after  the 
battle  of  Ferket.  In  the  next  year  the  invaders  had  pushed  on  to  the 
line  of  Abu-Hamed  and  Berber,  driving  the  enemy  before  them.  In  1898 
the  Khalifa  was  to  be  attacked  in  the  heart  of  his  empire  ;  a  considerable 
body  of  British  troops  was  sent  up  to  join  the  Egyptians,  and  in  April  the 
advanced  guard  of  the  Arab  host  was  destroyed  at  the  battle  of  the 
Atbara.  In  August  Kitchener  marched  on  Omdurman,  the  enemy's 
capital,  and  was  met  outside  its  walls  by  the  Khalifa  at  the  head  of  the 
full  force  of  his  barbarous  realm,  at  least  50,000  fighting  men.  In  one 
long  day's  fighting  these  fanatical  hordes  were  scattered  and  half  extermi- 
nated ;  it  is  calculated  that  1 1,000  were  slain  and  16,000  wounded  before 
their  fierce  charge  was  turned  back  (September  ist).  Omdurman  and 
Khartoum  were  occupied,  and  the  Khalifa  fied  into  the  desert. 

The  Khalifa  soon  afterward  died.  A  railroad  was  built  to  Khartoum, 
and  a  college  was  founded  in  that  city  in  memory  of  the  illustrious 
Gordon,  and  thus  the  Soudan  was  redeemed  for  civilization. 

GERMANY  IN  CHINA. 

One  of  the  most  significant  episodes  of  the  year  1897  was  the  seizure 
of  the  important  Chinese  port  of  Kiao-Chau  by  Germany,  with  some 
territory  adjacent  to  it.  This  was  done  in  return  for  the  murder  of  two 
German  missionaries  by  the  Chinese.  It  marked  the  entrance  of 
Germany  as  a  factor  in  the  "Chinese  problem,"  and  led  to  the  active 
participation  of  that  Power  in  all  subsequent  considerations  of  the  attitude 
of  the  civilized  Powers  toward  China. 

The  alliance  between  France  and  Russia,  which  was  concluded  by 
President  Faure,  was  now  made  more  marked,  and  the  existence  of  a 
formal  treaty,  signed  and  sealed,  was  openly  announced. 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  623 

THE  DREiTUS  CASE. 

In  1897  the  Dreyfus  case  came  to  the  fore.  This  extraordinary  case 
had  its  origin  in  1894,  when  the  French  Government  discovered  that 
some  of  its  military  secrets  were  being  betrayed  to  Germany.  A  brilHant 
young  officer,  Captain  Dreyfus,  was  accused  of  being  the  traitor.  He 
was  a  Jew  and  was  rich.  He  was  hurried  through  a  secret  trial,  in  which 
he  was  not  permitted  to  face  his  accusers,  or  even  to  know  of  what  he 
was  accused,  and  was  sentenced  to  degradation  and  exile  for  life.  The 
sentence  was  carried  out  with  the  utmost  severity.  In  1897,  however, 
certain  facts  came  out  which  indicated  that  he  had  been  the  victim  of  a 
conspiracy.  Colonel  Picquart,  a  brave  army  officer,  made  these  dis- 
coveries. He  was  immediately  sent  out  of  the  country  by  the  authorities 
and  attempts  were  made  to  hush  the  matter  up.  But  many  eminent 
men,  including  M.  Scheurer-Kestner,  a  Senator,  and  M.  Zola,  the 
novelist,  took  the  case  up,  and  forced  it  to  an  issue.  M.  Zola  made  so 
fierce  an  attack  upon  certain  army  officers,  in  a  letter  to  the  President, 
that  he  was  arrested  and  tried,  and  after  a  mockery  of  a  trial  sent  to 
jail.  This  only  added  fuel  to  the  flame  of  agitation,  and  the  Govern- 
ment, after  several  Ministerial  crises,  was  compelled  to  recall  Dreyfus 
from  exile  and  give  him  a  new  trial.  The  result  of  this  trial  was  his 
moral  acquittal,  though  a  technical  verdict  was  given  against  him  by  the 
use  of  grossly  unjust  means.  After  a  nominal  punishment  he  was  set  at 
liberty.  The  truth  seems  to  be  that  an  officer  calling  himself  Count 
Esterhazy  was  the  guilty  man  ;  that  some  other  officers,  including  a 
prominent  general,  were  implicated  with  him  ;  and  that  a  deliberate  con- 
spiracy was  formed  by  the  men  in  control  of  the  War  Office  and  the 
General  Staff  of  the  army,  to  fix  the  guilt  upon  the  innocent  Dreyfus 
and  then  to  stifle  all  investigation.  The  case  aroused  violent  passions, 
and  for  a  time  a  direct  breach  between  the  civil  government  and  the  army 
seemed  imminent,  while  a  furious  wave  of  hatred  against  the  Jews  swept 
over  France,  fomented  by  the  corrupt  army  ring.  In  the  end,  however, 
the  civil  authorities  asserted  themselves,  and  the  management  of  the 
army  was  radically  reformed.  In  the  midst  of  the  controversy,  and 
largely  as  a  result  of  anxiety  and  emotion  aroused  by  it.  President  Faure 
died,  and  M.  Loubet  was  elected  President  in  his  place. 

A  new  civil  code,  completely  revolutionizing  legal   procedure,  was 
adopted  in  Germany  in    1898,  to  go  into  effect  at  the  beginning  of  the 

33 


624  STORY   OF   ONE    HUNDRED   YEARS. 

twentieth  century — one  of  the   most   important  developments  of  juris- 
prudence the  world  had  seen  in  the  hundred  years. 

SPOLIATION  OF  FINLAND. 

A  deplorable  incident  of  1898  was  the  spoliation  ol  Finland  by 
Russia.  That  country  had  been  for  nearly  a  hundred  years  subject  to 
the  Russian  crown,  but  autonomous  in  local  affairs  under  a  constitution 
of  its  own.  It  was  the  most  loyal  and  by  far  the  most  enlightened  part  of 
the  Czar's  dominions.  But  the  Czar,  by  a  ruthless  decree,  abolished  its 
constitution  and  reduced  it  to  the  rank  of  an  ordinary  Russian  province. 
The  newspaper  press  was  suppressed,  the  use  of  the  Finnish  language 
in  public  matters  forbidden,  the  schools  put  under  a  Russian  censorship, 
and  the  whole  country  treated  as  Poland  had  been  at  the  conquest  of  the 
latter.  The  world  cried  out  in  protest  against  this  unsurpassed  crime, 
but  in  vain.  The  Finns  were  helpless,  and  their  only  relief  was  in  flight. 
A  wholesale  exodus  of  them  began  to  the  United  States,  Canada  and 
other  countries,  and  though  forbidden  by  the  Czar  this  movement  bids 
fair  to  depopulate  the  land. 

AUSTRALIAN  FEDERATION. 

The  question  of  uniting  the  various  Australian  colonies  in  a  single 
nation,  after  the  fashion  of  Canada,  had  long  been  considered.  A  prac- 
tical plan  was  adopted  in  1899,  and  the  union  of  the  colonies  in  the 
"Commonwealth  of  Australia"  was  effected,  to  go  into  actual  force  on 
the  first  day  of  the  new  century.  The  constitution  adopted  was  modelled 
very  closely  after  that  of  the  United  States.  This  act  of  federation  did 
not  separate  Australia  from  the  British  Empire,  but  rather  made  the 
union  all  the  closer. 

THE  TRANSVAAL  WAR. 

In  the  spring  and  summer  of  1899  the  dispute  between  Great 
Britain  and  the  Transvaal,  over  the  latter's  treatment  of  British  colonists, 
became  more  and  more  heated.  It  culminated  in  a  sudden  declaration  of 
war  by  the  Transvaal  and  the  Orange  River  Free  State — these  two 
having  formed  an  alliance.  The  Boer  armies  quickly  overran  Natal  and 
a  part  of  Cape  Colony,  where  the  British  were  totally  unprepared  to 
meet  them,  and  strove  to  raise  all  the  Dutch  population  of  the  Cape 
against  British  rule,  "drive  the  British  into  the  sea,"  and  make  all  South 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  625 

Africa  a  purely  Dutch  confederation.  The  towns  of  Ladysmith,  Kim- 
berley  and  Mafeking  were  besieged  by  overwhelming  forces  of  Boers, 
and  for  a  time  things  looked  dark  for  the  British  Empire  in  Africa. 

The  British  Government  quickly  rose  to  meet  the  occasion.  An 
army  of  more  than  200,000  men  was  organized  and  hurried  to  the  scene, 
the  colonies  in  all  parts  of  the  world  vieing  with  each  other  in  the  zeal 
and  generosity  with  which  they  sent  regiments  to  aid  the  mother  country. 
Finally,  after  other  leaders  had  failed,  Lord  Roberts,  the  hero  of  the 
Afghan  war,  was  put  in  command.  The  siege  of  Kimberley  was  raised. 
A  large  Boer  army  under  General  Cronje  was  captured.  The  siege  of 
Ladysmith  was  raised.  Finally  Mafeking,  after  one  of  the  most  stubborn 
and  heroic  defences  in  histor}^  was  also  rescued.  The  war  was  then 
transferred  to  the  soil  of  the  two  Boer  States.  The  Orange  State  was 
soon  conquered  and  annexed  to  the  British  Empire,  and  in  the  summer 
of  1900,  before  the  war  had  been  in  progress  a  year,  the  Transvaal 
shared  its  fate.  President  Kruger,  of  the  Transvaal,  fled  to  Europe, 
and  the  war  ended  with  the  addition  of  two  fine  provinces  to  the  British 
Empire,  and  the  consolidation  of  all  South  Africa  under  the  British  flag. 

ANARCHIST  MURDERS. 

The  assassinations  of  the  Empress  Elizabeth  of  Austria  in  1898,  and 
of  King  Humbert  of  Italy  in  1900,  by  Socialists  of  Anarchist  proclivities, 
are  to  be  recorded.  Both  these  shocking  crimes  were  committed  simply 
for  the  sake  of  killing  a  ruler,  for  it  was  universally  conceded  that  the 
careers  of  both  victims  had  been  free  from  reproach. 

In  the  spring  of  1899  a  Peace  Congress  met  at  The  Hague,  at  the 
invitation  of  the  Emperor  of  Russia,  in  which  practically  all  the  nations 
of  the  world  were  represented.  After  long  consideration  it  adopted  a 
scheme  providing  for  a  permanent  international  court  of  arbitration  and 
some  other  rules  relating  to  intervention,  mediation,  etc.,  which  were 
accepted  by  most  of  the  Powers,  and  which  bid  fair  to  go  far  toward 
lessening  the  dangers  of  war. 

THE  BOXER  OUTBREAK  IN  CHINA. 

Early  in  the  summer  of  1900  a  great  insurrection  against  mission- 
aries and  all  foreigners  arose  in  China.  The  Chinese  Government,  fear- 
for  its  own  safety,  let  the  rebels  have  their  own  way,  and  even  encouraged 


626  STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS. 

them.  The  foreign  legations  at  Pekin  were  besieged  for  weeks  by  a 
bloodthirsty  mob,  and  all  communication  with  the  outside  world  was  cut 
off.  Meantime  all  over  the  empire  Christian  missionaries  and  native 
converts  were  massacred  with  revolting  tortures. 

After  much  delay  the  various  Powers  interested  assembled  a  relief 
force  at  Taku,  and,  urged  to  action  by  the  vigorous  leadership  of  the 
United  States,  sent  it  inland  to  the  rescue  of  the  legations.  Tien-Tsin 
was  captured  after  a  sharp  fight,  and  thereafter  little  Chinese  opposition 
was  encountered.  Peking  was  reached  and  the  legations  were  rescued. 
The  German  Minister  and  some  other  foreigners  had,  however,  been 
murdered.  The  foreign  troops  then  indulged  in  an  orgie  of  looting,  at 
both  Peking  and  Tien-Tsin,  in  which  the  Americans  happily  did  not  par- 
ticipate. The  Russians  further  disgraced  civilization  by  committing 
wholesale  massacres  of  thousands  of  inoffensive  and  defenceless  Chinese, 
including  women  and  children,  often  torturing  them  In  a  most  savage 
manner..  More  than  7000  were  thus  slaughtered  at  once  in  a  single  town 
in  Manchuria.  A  Russian  army  was  sent  In  to  effect  the  conquest  and 
annexation  of  Manchuria.  A  large  international  army,  of  German, 
French,  British  and  other  troops,  but  including  no  Americans,  was  organ- 
ized and  stationed  at  Peking,  under  the  command  of  the  German  Field 
Marshal,  Count  von  Waldersee,  with  the  apparent  intention  of  proceed- 
ing to  the  at  least  partial  conquest  and  partition  of  the  Chinese  Empire. 

The  nineteenth  century  thus  came  to  a  close  with  Great  Britain 
triumphant  in  South  Africa,  and  with  the  European  Powers  at  peace 
among  themselves  and  apparently  uniting  for  the  partition  of  the  Chinese 
Empire. 


CHAPTER  LVII. 


Rudyard    Kipling  —  Electrical   Appliances  —  The    Germ    Theory  —  Liquid 

Air — Rapid  Transit — Sewage  Disposal — Polar   Exploration — The 

Crew — Objects    of    the    Expedition — The    Galveston 

Flood— The  Death  Roll. 


THE  last  four  years  of  the  century  were  not  marked  with  many 
great  advances  in  science  and  literature,  though  they  saw  the 
development  of  various  earlier  movements  to  full  fruition.  A 
great  world's  fair  was  held  in  Paris  in  1900,  at  which  were  dis- 
played the  latest  achievements  of  human  genius  and  skill. 

The  chief  literary  name  which  we  have  here  to  mention  is  that  of 
Rudyard  Kipling.  He  had  some  years  before  established  his  place 
firmly  among  the  best  writers  of  the  day.  But,  by  the  publication  of  his 
unique  "Jungle  Books,"  in  1896,  and  his  sublime  poem  "Recessional," 
in  1897,  he  won  easily  the  foremost  rank  among  the  rising  authors  of 
the  closing  century. 

ELECTRICAL  APPLIANCES. 

Each  year  saw  some  new  development  of  electrical  science  and 
some  new  harnessing  of  the  mysterious  fluid  to  do  the  works  of  man. 
Professor  Marconi  brought  forward  the  often-tried  system  of  wireless 
telegraphy,  and  succeeded  in  putting  it  practically  to  work.  Electricity 
was  used  more  and  more  as  a  motive  power,  and  began  to  supplant 
steam  on  many  railroads. 

In  1 899-1 900  electricity,  as  well  as  steam,  compressed  air  and  other 
forces  were  successfully  employed  for  the  propulsion  of  vehicles,  from 
the  lightest  pleasure  carriages  to  heavy  trucks  and  drays,  thus  dispens- 
ing with  horses. 

The  submarine  boats  invented  by  J.  P.  Holland,  of  New  York,  M. 
Zede,  of  France,  and  others,  were  in  these  years  found  to  be  practical, 
and  the  navies  of  these  and  other  nations  began  to  adopt  them  as  a  part 
of  their  effective  force. 

THE  GERM  THEORY. 

The  germ  theory  of  disease,  of  which  the  illustrious  Pasteur  was 
the  chief  founder,  continued  to  be  developed,  with  increasing  benefit  to 

627 


628  STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 

the  human  race.  Yellow  fever,  Asiatic  cholera,  the  bubonic  plague, 
malaria  and  many  other  diseases  were  found  to  be  produced  by  specific 
germs,  and  thus  the  way  to  the  cure  and  prevention  of  them  was  opened. 
Methods  of  inoculation  against  some  of  these  diseases  were  discovered, 
and  proved  to  be  largely  efficacious.  One  of  the  most  extraordinary 
discoveries  was  that  the  germs  of  malaria  are  propagated  by  a  certain 
kind  of  mosquitoes,  just  as  the  bubonic  plague  is  chiefly  spread  by  rats. 
At  the  end  of  the  century  it  seems  quite  probable  that  Pasteur's  great 
prophecy  will  be  fulfilled — that  we  shall  cause  all  germ  diseases  to  dis- 
appear from  the  world. 

LIQUID  AIR. 

An  interesting  invention,  and  one  which  promises  important  results 
in  some  future  time,  is  that  of  the  liquefaction  of  the  atmosphere.  This 
was  first  demonstrated  by  Professor  Dewar,  of  the  Royal  Society,  in 
London,  but  has  since  been  commonly  practiced  by  various  methods. 
Liquid  air  is  a  clear  fluid,  of  an  inconceivable  degree  of  cold.  It  is 
thought  that  it  will  in  time  be  of  great  value  for  refrigerating  purposes, 
for  the  storage  of  power  and  many  other  uses.  As  yet,  however,  no 
practical  application  of  it  has  been  made. 

RAPID  TRANSIT. 

The  vexing  problems  of  passenger  transit  in  large  cities  has  been 
largely  solved  by  the  successful  introduction  of  electric  traction.  The 
cable  car  succeeded  the  horse  car,  and  the  electric  car  has  now  made 
the  cable  obsolete.  The  last-named  system,  morever,  by  banishing  the 
smoke,  heat,  etc.,  of  steam  locomotives,  has  made  the  use  of  under- 
ground railroads  feasible.  The  last  year  of  the  century  saw  the  begin- 
ning of  a  vast  system  of  rapid  transit  in  New  York  City  by  means  of 
'  underground  electric  roads,  including  a  tunnel  under  the  East  River  to 
Brooklyn. 

SEWAGE  DISPOSAL. 

Scarcely  less  troublesome  in  former  years  was  the  question  of 
sewage  disposal.  The  last  few  years  have  seen  a  strong  revulsion  against 
the  practice  of  simply  pouring  it  into  the  nearest  water-course.  Sewage 
farms  and  rendering  works  are  now  increasing  in  number,  where  the 
waste  products  of  cities  are  utilized  in  a  manner  that  is  at  once  inoffensive 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  629 

and  highly  profitable.  Thus  all  the  sewage  of  Paris  and  Berlin  is  dis- 
posed of,  and  the  same  rational  and  economical  system  is  coming  more 
and  more  into  favor  in  the  United  States. 

POLAR   EXPLORATION. 

During  these  last  four  years  several  expeditions  have  been  at  work 
in  Antarctic  regions,  but  the  results  of  their  labors  are  not  yet  fully 
known.  The  year  1900  was  signalized  by  a  notable  achievement  in  the 
Arctic  regions,  in  which  Nansen's  advance  toward  the  North  Pole  was 
surpassed.  This  was  done  by  the  Duke  of  the  Abruzzi,  a  kinsman  ot 
the  King  of  Italy,  who  had  previously  distinguished  himself  by  his  ascent 
of  Mount  St.  Elias.  He  set  out  on  June  12,  1899,  in  the  "Stella  Polare." 
This  was  a  small  vessel,  some  twenty  yards  in  length,  and  was  originally 
a  whaling-boat.  She  had  previously  been  used  by  Nansen  in  his  Green- 
land expedition.  She  was  specially  fitted  out  for  the  present  purpose  un- 
der the  personal  supervision  of  the  Duke,  who  looked  after  the  minutest 
details,  even  the  food  placed  on  board  passing  through  his  own  hands. 
Parts  of  the  vessel  were  remodelled  with  a  view  to  resisting  the  impact 
of  the  ice.  She  remained  a  sailing  craft,  but  small  engines  were  intro- 
duced with  a  speed  capacity  of  five  miles  an  hour,  so  that  progress  could 
be  made  in  any  weather.  The  engines  were  also  intended  for  heating 
purposes. 

THE  CREW. 

The  crew  comprised  Captain  Everson  and  ten  Norwegian  sailors, 
who  were  selected  as  best  adapted  to  the  requirements  of  the  Arctic 
climate,  two  Italian  seamen  of  exceptional  physical  strength  to  look  after 
the  sleighing  arrangements,  and  four  Alpine  guides.  The  latter  were  a 
new  feature  in  enterprises  of  this  kind,  and  they  proved  a  great  success, 
although  Nansen  himself  expressed  the  opinion  that  they  would  be  prac- 
tically useless,  the  character  of  the  Polar  ice  being  quite  different  from 
that  found  in  their  native  mountains.  The  chief  of  the  guides,  Pettignex, 
is  one  of  the  best-known  and  most  experienced  in  the  Val  d' Aosta.  The 
Duke's  colleagues  were  Captain  Cagni,  of  the  Italian  Marines,  and  a 
Piedmontese,  and  Dr.  Count  Ouirini,  who  belongs  to  an  ancient  Venetian 
family.  Both  these  gentlemen  accompanied  the  Duke  throughout  his 
Alaska  explorations,  which  have  been  recently  described  by  Dr. 
Filippi. 


630  STORY    OF    ONE    HUNDRED   YEARS. 

OBJECTS  OF  THE  EXPEDITION. 

The  principal  end  the  Duke  of  the  Abruzzi  had  in  view  was  to  pen- 
etrate the  Arctic  region  farther  even  than  Nansen  had  gone.  The  high- 
est latitude  reached  was  86  deg.  ;^;^  min.,  or  nineteen  geographical  miles 
farther  north  than  Nansen's  "farthest  north." 

THE  GALVESTON  FLOOD. 

'  The  last  year  of   the  century  was  marked  with  one  of  the  most 

dreadful  wholesale  tragedies  on  record.  This  was  the  practical  destruc- 
tion of  the  city  of  Galveston,  Texas,  by  a  flood,  on  September  8  and  9, 
1900.  A  violent  tropical  storm  arose  on  September  8,  with  a  wind  that 
reached  a  velocity  of  probably  one  hundred  miles  an  hour.  The  instru- 
ments recorded  eighty-four  miles  an  hour  before  they  were  blown  away. 
The  waters  of  the  bay  on  the  one  side  and  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  on  the 
other  were  piled  up  in  stupendous  waves  and  swept  over  the  doomed 
city.  Fully  three-fourths  of  the  city  was  reduced  to  ruins.  The  actual 
loss  of  life  will  never  be  known,  as  thousands  of  bodies  were  swept  out 
to  sea  and  never  were  recovered  and  identified.  It  is  known,  however, 
that  nearly  if  not  quite  eight  thousand  persons  perished.  About  ten 
thousand  more  were  made  homeless,  and  as  the  water  works,  lighting 
works,  etc.,  of  the  place  were  destroyed,  their  plight  was  pitiable.  The 
losses  on  property  aggregated  about  $30,000,000.  Severe  losses  of  life 
and  property  were  also  suffered  by  many  other  cities  and  towns  in  that 
part  of  Texas.  The  whole  nation,  and  indeed  many  foreign  lands, 
hastened  to  give  all  possible  relief  and  a  vast  sum  was  soon  raised  for 
the  benefit  of  the  stricken  people,  and  the  work  of  rebuilding  the  city 
was  manfully  begun. 

THE  DEATH  ROLL. 

The  deaths  of  these  last  four  years  of  the  century  include  those  of 
Sylvester,  the  English  mathematician  ;  Brahms,  the  musician  ;  Jean  Inge- 
low,  the  poet ;  Mrs.  Oliphant,  the  novelist  and  historian  ;  Vice-President 
Hobart  of  the  United  States  ;  King  Humbert  of  Italy  ;  Henry  George, 
the  Socialist  and  "  single  tax  "advocate  ;  Daudet,  the  novelist  ;  Bismarck 
and  Gladstone. 

So  ends  the  nineteenth  century,  of  which  we  may  in  closing  recall 
the  words  of  Mr.  Balfour,  the  British  statesman  and  philosopher,  who 
ranks  it  the  greatest  century  of  recorded  time  in  the  progress  of  science, 
which  means  human  knowledge  and  civilization  : 


STORY  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS.  63 1 

"  In  the  last  hundred  years  the  world  has  seen  great  wars,  great 
national  and  social  upheavals,  great  religious  movements,  great  economic 
changes.  Literature  and  art  have  had  their  triumphs,  and  have  perma- 
nently enriched  the  intellectual  inheritance  of  our  race.  Yet,  large  as  is 
the  space  which  subjects  like  this  legitimately  fill  in  our  thoughts,  much 
as  they  will  occupy  the  future  historian,  it  is  not  among  these  that  I  seek 
for  the  most  important  and  most  fundamental  differences  which  separate 
the  present  from  preceding  ages.  Rather  is  this  to  be  found  in  the 
cumulative  products  of  scientific  research,  to  which  no  other  period  offers 
a  precedent  or  a  parallel.  No  single  discovery,  it  may  be,  can  be  com- 
pared in  its  results  to  that  of  Copernicus  ;  no  single  discoverer  can  be 
compared  in  genius  to  Newton.  But  in  their  total  effects  the  advances 
made  by  the  nineteenth  century  are  not  to  be  matched.  Not  only  is  the 
surprising  increase  of  knowledge  new,  but  the  use  to  which  it  has  been 
put  is  new  also.  The  growth  of  industrial  invention  is  not  a  fact  we  are 
permitted  to  forget.  We  do,  however,  sometimes  forget  how  much  of  it 
is  due  to  a  close  connection  between  theoretic  knowledge  and  its  utili- 
tarian  application,  which,  in  its  degree,  is  altogether  unexampled  in  the 
history  of  mankind.  I  suppose  that  at  this  moment,  if  we  were  allowed 
a  vision  of  the  embryonic  forces  which  are  predestined  most  potently  to 
affect  the  future  of  mankind,  we  should  have  to  look  for  them  not  in  the 
legislature  nor  in  the  press,  nor  on  the  platform  ;  not  in  the  schemes  of 
practical  statesmen,  nor  the  dreams  of  the  political  theorists,  but  in  the 
laboratories  of  scientific  students  whose  names  are  but  little  in  the 
mouths  of  men,  who  cannot  themselves  forecast  the  results  of  their  own 
labors,  and  whose  theories  could  scarcely  be  understood  by  those  whom 
they  will  chiefly  benefit." 


^V\E  UNIVERJ/A: 


o 


■'^•rjlJDNVSOl^'^        "^AaJAINll  3V\V' 


-^..OFCAllFOff^       ^OFCAIIFO/?^ 


4? 


.^WEUNIVERJ/A 


"^m-iwrn"^ 


■^/saMii 


;,0f  CALIFO/?^ 


t?   -    -  — '  — 


M;OFCAtlfO% 


'^OAtivaaii^^'^ 


,  ^\\[  m\m//j 


^vKlOSA,'JGflfj> 


-^mwrn"^      '^/sajAiMiiuv' 


.  ^\U  UN'IVERy//, 


o 


o^lOSANCFlfj>. 


■^/ia^AiNn  3\Vv 


^^MllBKAIiYOr         ^,\MIIBI{ 


^.JOJnVDJO'^       '^.KOJIl' 


^OFCAllfO% 


''^OAMvaaii^^^     "^^OAavij 


,  ^\\E  UNIVERJ//, 


<rji]QNYS01^'^ 


■^/Sa^AINOJWV 


^>\11IBRARY0/:         ^tllBRARYQ/r 


,  \WE  UNIVERS/A 


<ri]]DNVS01^ 


^/MJAII 


,  \\\E  UNIVERJ/A 


^>clOSANCElfj> 

o 


,-^OFCAllF0%       ^-, 


^OfCAllFOft^ 


.^WEUN'IVERS/A 


^■^OAwmn"^    '^■^oxwmn'^      "^mwrn^ 


vlOSW 


^^illBRARYO/ 


^vMllBRARYO/^ 


^<!/ojnvjjo>^ 


%0J11VDJ0^ 


,^WEy^JlVERs■/A 


vVlOSANCElfx^ 


^^^M■llBRARYG^ 


•<rj]J3NYS01^^         ''^AaJAINfl  ]l\V^  '%0JI1V>J0'<^ 


^>^tllBR/ 

l7? 


'^OJIIV 


^OFfAllFOff^ 


■^(^AavaaiH^^ 


^OFCAllFO% 


^^^Aavaaiv^'^^ 


^^^WEUKIVERJ/^ 


vj.lOSANCFlfj> 


"^/iaJAlNll-JiW^ 


^•OFCAllFOff^ 


OFCAl 


^OAavaan-^^"^      ^CAavai 


^^WE  L'NIVERJ/^.        ^VlOSANCElfj> 


o 


"^AajAINH  ]l\V^ 


^^^illBRARYQ/^       ^^^lEIBRARYQ^ 


^<I/0JI"IV3  JO"^       "^.i/OJIlVJJO^ 


,^MEUNIVERi•//,         ^vvlOSAtJ 


<rji]0Nvsoi^      %a3AiN 


^\\\E  UMVER%       ^lOSANCflfX;>^ 


^.OFCAllFOff^       ^OFCAllFOft^ 


^^^WEUNIVER%       ^lOSANi 


_'-!:,     -^  J^ 


IfCAllFOft^       ^OFCAIIFOfti^ 


uavaaii^^       ^CAavaaii-^ 


^WEUNIVERJ/// 


-       '  ■'  ■-l,iiiri,'r'«,^".^,?i.Si'.95«l-.U8RARVFAQLir» 


.^.OFCAllFOffx^ 


R 


%mmQ\'f     %. ^     000  165  565 


^OFCAIIFO% 


OAavaaii-^'^ 


(\EI)NIVERy/A 


o 


.vlOSAVCElfj-^ 


=      ■<: 


v/sa3AiNn]Wv 


^^tllBRARYOr 


^nM-IIBRARYQc^  ^\^E  UNIVERS/^ 


^<!/OJITOdO^ 


'^.i/ojnvjjo'^ 


^■lOSM'CElfj-;^ 


^Til^DNVSOl^"^        "^^/Sa^MNll  ]V\V 


rtEUNIVERJ/yv 


o 


\>:lOSv\NC[lfJ> 


"^/iajAiNiiiWv 


^A;OFCAllFOff^ 


^^OFCAIIFO%, 


^ommn^      >&Aavaan#' 


AWEUNIVERJ/a 

>- 

■  O 


.vlOSANCElfjv 

c 


%a3MNll3U^ 


vlllBRARYQc 


^illBRARYQ< 


aojnv3-jo'<^ 


'^<l/0JnVDJO'^ 


.5MEUNIVERy/A 


o 


^lOSANCElfx^, 


%a]AiNn3UV 


^sSlLIBRARYQc 


^;^tllBRARYG< 


^(!/0dnV3J0'<^ 


^(!/0jnV3JO'^ 


OFCAIIFO/?^ 


^;0F  CAllFOffA> 


JAdvaaii-^'^ 


^ 


^WEUNIVERV/i 


^VlOSANCElfjj^ 


o 


,M,OFCAIIFO% 


^Aavaaii-^^"^       ^-Tiij'jNvsoi^^     ■^/ia3AiNn]\\v^       '^>&A«vaan-^v^     ^^OAavaaiTi^"^ 


WEUNIVERS/A 


o 


.vlOSASCElfj> 


^tllBRARYQ/v        ^^^l•llBRARYO/^ 


\V\EU.^IVER% 


o 


^VlOSWCElCf;^ 


*^Aa]AINn  3WV^ 


,«EUNIVER% 


I 


.VlOSA'iCElfj> 

o 


^.OFfAllFORj^       <^OFCAtlFOR(j, 


-(MEUNIVER% 


'^/wiAiNH  i\\v^       '^OAMvaaii^^^     '^^OAavaaiv^'^'        <fi]]DN\'soi^'^ 


%;nAis'!i  i\\v^ 


\IIIBRARY(>         ^tllBRARYO/r 


'<!/0JnV3JO 


%0JllVDdO>' 


A'rtMINIVERy/A 


v:lOSANCElfj> 


O         0- 

<rii]ONvsoi^      "v/iadAiNd  dwv 


^lllBRARYQ^^       ^^lllBRARYGr 


^ 


■^iOdlWDdO'^       ^<i/0dllV3J0^ 


OFCAllFOff^       ^OFCAIIFOR^ 


AMEUNIVERJ//,         vS;lOSANCflfj->. 


^OFCAilF0R«>        ^OFCAllFOff^ 


